The Scientific Method
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Develop the problem Develop a theoretical solution to the problem Formulate the hypothesis or question Formulate the research plan (methods) Collect and analyze the data Interpret the results and form conclusions Refine the theory
Identification of the Research Problem
Steps to be Taken
1. Identify a general problem area 2. Revise & narrow the problem statement
1. Identify a general problem area
Criteria to use:
Interest Theoretical value Practical value Workability Critical mass
Worthwhile?
1. Identify a general problem area
Why do people drop out of recreation programs? How do you make this applied research vs. basic research vs. action research?
1. Identify a general problem area
Review the literature
Get broad overview using secondary sources
Write a general problem statement
Outline of the Problem
I. Topic: Attrition in Recreation Programs II. Statement of the Problem: The problem was to determine why participants in recreation programs drop out.
Writing Problem Statements
Tells what will be (or was) done Identifies variables & relationships to be studied
2. Revise & narrow the problem statement
Review primary sources in the literature
Identify primary sources Read & record the literature Focus should be on identifying questions that need to be answered (theoretically & practically)
2. Revise & narrow the problem statement
Review primary sources in the literature Make a list of research questions Provide a rationale for the problem Identify variables to be studied Rewrite the problem statement
Outline of the Problem
III. Results of Previous Studies IV. Questions to be Answered:
A. B. C. D. What is the extent of the attrition? What is the nature of the attrition? What are the causes of the attrition? What is the relationship of the cause of attrition to each type of attrition? E. Are there any factors that explain the causes of attrition?
Statement of the Problem
The problem was to determine the extent to which participants in recreation programs drop out, the reasons for their dropping out, and the relationship of various facts to loss of enrollment.
The Scientific Method
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Develop the problem Develop a theoretical solution to the problem Formulate the hypothesis or question Formulate the research plan (methods) Collect and analyze the data Interpret the results and form conclusions Refine the theory
Development of the Research Question or Hypothesis
Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions
Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions
Identify independent (cause, what is manipulated) and dependent (effect, what is measured) variables to be measured
Outline of the Problem
What is the extent of the attrition?
In each season? In different programs?
Outline of the Problem
What is the nature of the attrition?
Males and females? People of different ages? People of different geographic regions? People with different backgrounds in recreation? Combinations of the above?
Outline of the Problem
What are the causes of attrition?
Economic reasons? Personality differences? Personal (other than economic) reasons? Other?
Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions
Variables
Any characteristic or phenomenon that can vary (or change) across organisms, situations, or environments
Types of Variables
Variable Independent (Situational) Dependent (Response) Attribute (Subject) Extraneous (Mediating) Key Characteristic Example Eating apples (none Presumed cause or one per day) Measured Number of doctor outcome (effect) visits for colds or flu Subject characteristic Controlled influence Male vs. female Prior health, other foods
Statement of the Problem
The problem was to determine the extent to which participants in outdoor recreation programs in college drop out and the reasons for their dropping out.
Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions
Which should it be?
Hypotheses
Research hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Null hypothesis
Examples of Research Hypotheses
If children are taught to read via whole language, then their reading comprehension will be higher. If children watch 3 or more hours of TV per day, then their behavior on the playground will become more aggressive. If children learn in small cooperative groups, then their social interactions will be more positive.
Form of Research Hypotheses
IF, THEN: If young children take piano lessons, then they will have higher math aptitude 10 years later. STATEMENT: Young children who take piano lessons will have higher math aptitude 10 years later. QUESTION: Will young children who take piano lessons have higher math aptitude 10 years later?
Null Hypothesis & Statistics
STATISTICAL QUESTION: How likely is it (what is the probability) that the actual findings in the sample would be obtained if the null hypothesis was true? STATISTICAL ANSWER: p value (probability value p p =.05) There is a 5% (5 in 100) chance that the actual findings in the sample would be obtained if the null hypothesis is true.
Examples
RESEARCH: If children watch violent TV, then they will act more aggressively at recess. ALTERNATIVE: Children prone to aggression simply watch more violent TV. NULL: In a population of school-age children there is no relationship between TV violence and aggressive behavior.
Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions
Limitations - Example
This sample represented college students in the Northwest United States. Caution should be taken in extrapolating these results to people of other age groups in other geographic locations.
Assumptions - Examples
All participants who sign up for recreation programs do so voluntarily. All outdoor recreation programs are taught by qualified personnel.
Assumptions - Examples
All subjects completed the questionnaire honestly and correctly. The subjects understood the directions as they were intended. The subjects were a representative sample of college students in the Northwest.
Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions
Operational Definition
Presumed indicator of a construct Makes construct observable (empirical) & quantifiable Caution: loss of meaning
Creativity: Operational Definition
Teacher s ratings on a scale of 1-10 Number of recognized science projects Number of unusual uses for a briick named within one minute Ratings of a short story written by students as judged by a creativity expert Score on a researcher-developed test of creativity
Intelligence: Operational Definition
Correctly solving logic problem Answering questions about word meanings Repeating backward strings of 8 numbers Solving a math problem
Using street smarts to achieve a goal Starting a new business Paraphrasing the theme of a written paragraph Solving an equation Executing a triple lutz
Construct Intelligence Anxiety Motivation
Operational definition Score on GRE; score on StanfordBinet scale HR; BP; self-report rating GPA
Hyperactivity Number of fidgets in 15 minutes Self-esteem Creativity Score on Coopersmith test Number of novel uses for paper clips described in 3 minutes
The Scientific Method
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Develop the problem Develop a theoretical solution to the problem Formulate the hypothesis or question Formulate the research plan (methods) Collect and analyze the data Interpret the results and form conclusions Refine the theory
