UNIT:4

MULTIPATH MITIGATION
TECHNIQUES
 Multipath Propagation
In many instances, more version of the transmitted signal takes
more than one propagation path to reach the receiver from the
transmitter at a slightly different times and this situation is referred
to as multipath propagation.
Multipath Propagation
 Multipath Propagation

The properties of mobile radio channels:

Multipath fading -> time dispersion, ISI
Doppler spread -> dynamical fluctuation
These effects have a strong negative impact on the bit error rate of any
modulation.
Mobile communication systems require signal processing
techniques that improve the link performance in hostile mobile
radio environments.
The popular techniques:
Equalization: compensates for ISI
Diversity: compensates for channel fading

These techniques can be deployed independently or jointly.

 Multipath Propagation
Effects of Multipath Propagation:
(i) Fading
(ii) Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)

(i) Fading :
Fading is nothing but reduction in radio signal strength, normally
caused by reflection or absorption of the signal.
Small – scale fading:
The rapid fluctuations in amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of
a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance is called
Small – scale fading, or simply fading.
Fading Effects Due To Multipath Time Delay
Spread

 Time dispersion due to multipath causes the transmitted signal to

undergo either a flat or frequency selective fading.
 (i) Flat Fading:
The received signal in mobile radio will undergo flat fading effect if the
mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over
a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal.
(ii) Frequency Selective Fading (Time Delay Spread):

If the channel possesses a constant - gain and linear phase response

over a bandwidth that is, smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted
signal, then the channel creates frequency selective fading on the
received signal.
 (ii) Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)
 Due to multiple versions of the transmitted signal, they arrive at
the receiving antenna which is displaced with respect to one
another in time and spatial orientation.
 The multipath propagation increases the time required for the
baseband (actual information) portion of the signal to reach the
receiver due to an Inter Symbol Interference (lSI).
Multipath Delay spread
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)
 Chapter 1: Equalization
 If the modulation bandwidth exceeds the coherence bandwidth
of the radio channel, ISI occurs and modulation pulses are
spread in time.

 Equalization compensates for intersymbol interference (ISI)

created by multipath within time dispersive channels.
 An equalizer within a receiver compensates for the average range
of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics.

 Equalizers must be adaptive

 since the channel is generally unknown and time varying.
 Fundamentals of Equalization
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
caused by multipath propagation (time dispersion) ;
cause bit errors at the receiver;
the major obstacle to high speed data transmission over
mobile radio channels.

Equalization
a technique used to combat ISI;
can be any signal processing operation that minimizes ISI;
usually track the varying channel adaptively.
 Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
Training (first stage)
A known fixed-length training sequence is sent by the
transmitter so that the receiver's equalizer may average to a
proper setting.
The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the
receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficients in the worst
possible channel conditions
The training sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary signal or a
fixed, prescribed bit pattern.
Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is sent.
The time span over which an equalizer converges is a function
of
[Link] equalizer algorithm
[Link] equalizer structure
[Link] time rate of change of the multipath radio channel.
Equalizers require periodic retraining in order to maintain effective ISI
cancellation.
 Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer

Tracking (second stage)

Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is sent.

As user data are received, the adaptive algorithm of the

equalizer tracks the changing channel and adjusts its filter
characteristics over time.

commonly used in digital communication systems

where user data is segmented into short time blocks.

TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for

equalizers.
data in fixed-length time blocks,
training sequence usually sent at the beginning of a block
Communication system with an adaptive equalizer

Modulator Transmitter Radio

x(t) Channel RF Front End

Detector
nb (t) + Matched Filter
IF Stage
f (t)
y(t)
Adaptive Decision
heq (t) Equalizer Maker d (t)
dˆ(t)

Σ
e(t)
 ADAPTIVE EQUALIZERS

In order for an equalizer to effectively combat lSI, the equalizer

coefficients should change according to the channel status so as to track
the time varying characteristics of the mobile channel. Such an equalizer
is called an adaptive equalizer as it adapts to the channel variations.

The signal received by the equalizer may be expressed as,

If the impulse response of the equalizer is heq(t), then the output of the equalizer
is expressed as,
 ADAPTIVE EQUALIZERS

The complex baseband impulse response of a transversal filter equalizer

is given by,

g(t) is the combined impulse response of the transmitter, channel, RF/IF sections
of the receiver, and the equalizer at the receiver.
In frequency domain
A Generic Adaptive Equalizer

yk yk-1 yk-2
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

w0 w1 w2 wN
d̂k
Adaptive algorithm that updates the weights Σ
ek
Σ
Prior knowledge: dk
 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer

A transversal filter with

N delay elements
N+1 taps
N+1 tunable complex multipliers
N+1 weights:
These weights are updated continuously by the adaptive
algorithm
either on a sample by sample basis or on a block by block basis.
The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek.
ek is derived by comparing the output of the equalizer with some
signal which is either an exact scaled replica of the transmitted signal
xk or which represents a known property of the transmitted signal.
 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
A cost function is used
the cost function is minimized by using ek The, and the weights are
updated iteratively.
For example, The least mean squares (LMS) algorithm can
serve as a cost function.
Iterative operation based on LMS
New weights = Previous weights + (constant) x (Previous error) x (Current input vector)
Where
Previous error = Previous desired output — Previous actual output
This process is repeated rapidly in a programming loop while the
equalizer attempts to converge
Upon reaching convergence, the adaptive algorithm freezes the filter
weights until the error signal exceeds an acceptable level or until a
new training sequence is sent.
 Equalization Techniques
 Equalization techniques can be subdivided into two general
categories:
 linear equalization
The output of the decision maker is not used in the feedback path to
adapt the equalizer.
 nonlinear equalization
The output of the decision maker is used in the feedback path to
adapt the equalizer.

 Many filter structures are used to implement linear and

nonlinear equalizers

 For each structure, there are numerous algorithms used to

adapt the equalizer.
 Classification of equalizers

Equalizer

Linear Nonlinear

Types
DFE ML Symbol MLSE
Detector

Transversal Lattice Transversal

Structures Transversal Lattice
Channel Est.

Zero forcing Gradient RLS LMS RLS Gradient RLS LMS RLS
LMS Fast RLS Fast RLS
Algorithms RLS Sq. root RLS Sq. root RLS
Fast RLS
Sq. root RLS
 Linear transversal equalizer (LTE)
 made up of tapped delay lines, with the tappings spaced a
symbol period (Ts) apart
 the transfer function can be written as a function of the delay
operator  jTs or
1
Z
Assuming that the delay elements have unity gain and delay Ts,
of a linear

Basic linear transversal equalizer structure

 Linear transversal equalizer (LTE)

Two types of LTE

1) finite
impulse response (FIR) filter
The simplest LTE uses only feedforward taps
Transfer function is a polynomial in z-1
has many zeroes but poles only at z = 0
Usually simply called a transversal filter

2) Infiniteimpulse response (IIR) filter

has both feedforward and feedback taps
transfer function is a rational function of Z-1 with poles
and zeros.
tend to be unstable when used in channels where the
strongest pulse arrives after an echo pulse (i.e., leading
echoes)
rarely used.
Tapped delay line filter with both feedforward and feedback taps (IIR)
 Linear Equalizers
Transversal filter implementation (LTE)

Input

Output

This type of equalizer is the simplest. Threshold Detector

 Linear Equalizers
 current and past values of the received signal are linearly
weighted by the filter coefficient and summed to produce the
output,
 If the delays and the tap gains are analog, the continuous output of
the equalizer is sampled at the symbol rate and the samples are
applied to the decision device.
 Implementation is usually carried out in the digital domain where
the samples of the received signal are stored in a shift register.

 The output before decision making (threshold detection)

The minimum MSE it can achieve

 Linear Equalizers
Lattice filter implementation

Numerical stable, faster convergence, Complicated

 Lattice filter implementation
 The each stage of the lattice is characterized by the following recursive
equations as,

The backward error signal bn, are used as inputs to the tap weights, and the output of
the equalizer is given by,
 Linear Equalizers
Two main advantages of the lattice equalizer
numerical stability
faster convergence

Unique structure allows dynamic assignment of the most

effective length.
When channel is not very time dispersive Only a fraction of
the stages are used.
channel becomes more time dispersive
Length can be increased without stopping the operation

l Drawback: more complicated than LTE

 Nonlinear Equalization
 Linear equalizers do not perform well on channels which have
deep spectral nulls in the pass band.
 In an attempt to compensate for the distortion, the linear equalizer
places too much gain in the vicinity of the spectral null, thereby
enhancing the noise present in those frequencies.

 Nonlinear equalizers are used in applications where the

channel distortion is too severe for a linear equalizer to
handle.

 Three very effective nonlinear equalizer

(i) Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
(ii)Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
(iii) Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE)
(i) Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

Basic idea:
once an information symbol has been detected, the ISI that it
induces on future symbols can be estimated and subtracted
out before detection of subsequent symbols.

DFE Can be realized in either the direct transversal form or as

a lattice filter.

The LTE form consists of a feedforward filter (FFF) and a

feedback filter (FBF).
The FBF is driven by decisions on the output of the detector, and
its coefficients can be adjusted to cancel the ISI on the current
symbol from past detected symbols.

The equalizer has N1 + N2 + I taps in FFF and N3 taps in FBF

(i) Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

Input

Output

Feedf
orward Filter

Feedback Filter
(i) Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

The output of DFE

The minimum mean square error of DFE

It can be seen that the minimum MSE for a DFE is always
smaller than that of an LTE
Unless F (e is a constant, where adaptive equalization is not

 If )there are nulls in the F (e jT ) , a DFE has significantly

jT

needed
smaller minimum MSE than an LTE.
(i)Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

Conclusion

an LTE is well behaved when the channel spectrum is

comparatively flat.
a DFE is more appropriate for severely distorted wireless
channels.

If the channel is severely distorted or exhibits nulls in the

spectrum
the performance of an LTE deteriorates and the mean squared
error of a DFE is much better than a LTE.
Also, an LTE has difficulty equalizing a nonminimum phase
channel
where the strongest energy arrives after the first arriving signal
component.
 (ii) Another form of DFE----predictive DFE
 also consists of a feed forward filter (FFF) as in the
conventional DFE.

 Difference: the feedback filter (FBF) is driven by an

input sequence formed by the difference of the output of
the detector and the output of the feed forward filter.
 the FBF here is called a noise predictor because it predicts the
noise and the residual ISI contained in the signal at the FFF
output and subtracts from it

 The predictive DFE performs as well as the conventional

DFE as the limit in the number of taps in the FFF and the
FBF approach infinity.

 The FEF in the predictive DFE can also be realized as a

lattice structure
Another form of DFE----predictive DFE
 (iii) Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE) equalizer
The MSE-based linear equalizers are optimum with respect to
the criterion of minimum probability of symbol error when the
channel does not introduce any amplitude distortion.
Yet this is precisely the condition in which an equalizer is
needed for a mobile communications link.

MLSE uses various forms of the classical maximum

likelihood receiver structure.

the MLSE tests all possible data sequences (rather than

decoding each received symbol by itself), and chooses the data
sequence with the maximum probability as the output.
A channel impulse response simulator is used within the
algorithm,

Drawback: An MLSE usually has a large computational

requirement
especially when the delay spread of the channel is large.
(iii) Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE) equalizer

Matched
Filter

Delay

Channel
Estimator
 (iii) Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE) equalizer
 The MLSE can be viewed as a problem in estimating the state
of a discrete time finite state machine
 The channel has ML states, where M is the size of the symbol
alphabet of the modulation.

 An ML trellis is used by the receiver to model the channel over

time.
 The Viterbi algorithm then tracks the state of the channel by the
paths through the trellis.

 The MLSE is optimal in the sense that it minimizes the

probability of a sequence error.
 (iii) Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE) equalizer
NOTES:

The MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics

in order to compute the metrics for making decisions.

The MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution

of the noise corrupting the signal
the probability distribution of the noise determines the form of the
metric for optimum demodulation of the received signal.

The matched filter operates on the continuous time signal,

whereas the MLSE and channel estimator rely on discretized
(nonlinear) samples.
Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
 Equalizer requires a specific algorithm to update the coefficients
and track the channel variations.
 Since it compensates for an unknown and time-varying channel

 This section outlines three of the basic algorithms for adaptive

equalization.
 Though the algorithms detailed in this section are derived for the
linear, transversal equalizer, they can be extended to other equalizer
structures, including nonlinear equalizers.
Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
Factors determining the performance of an algorithm:

Rate of convergence (fast or slow?)

Defined as the number of iterations required for the algorithm, in
response to stationary inputs, to converge close enough to the
optimum solution.
A fast rate of convergence allows the algorithm to adapt rapidly to
a stationary environment of unknown statistics.
Furthermore, it enables the algorithm to track statistical variations
when operating in a nonstationary environment.

Misadjustment (precise or not?)

Provides a quantitative measure of the amount by which the final
value of the mean square error, averaged over an ensemble of
adaptive filters, deviates from the optimal minimum mean square
error.
Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
Factors determining the performance of an algorithm:

Computational complexity (simple or complex?)

Number of operations required to make one complete iteration of
the algorithm.

Numerical properties (stable or not?)

When an algorithm is implemented numerically, inaccuracies are
produced due to round-off noise and representation errors in the
computer.
These kinds of errors influence the stability of the algorithm.
Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
Practical considerations for choice of an equalizer structure and
its algorithm

 The cost of the computing platform (affordable or not?)

 especially when used in user equipments

 The power budget (power limited applications or else?)

 In portable radio applications, battery drain at the subscriber unit is a
paramount consideration

 The radio propagation characteristics (fast fading & time

delay spread?)
 The speed of the mobile unit determines the channel fading rate and
the Doppler spread, which is directly related to the coherence time of
the channel
Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
Three classic equalizer algorithms

Zero Forcing Algorithm (ZF)

Least Mean Square Algorithm (LMS)
Recursive Least Squares Algorithm (RLS)
 (i) Zero Forcing (ZF) Algorithm
Criterion:
In the zero force equalizer, the equalizer coefficients cn are chosen
to force the samples of the combined channel and equalizer
impulse response to zero.

Disadvantage:
may excessively amplify noise at frequencies where the folded
channel spectrum has high attenuation.
Noise enhancement makes ZF equalizer not suitable for the
wireless link.
 (i) Zero Forcing (ZF) Algorithm
In frequency domain, the transfer function of ZF equalizer is
chosen by the combination of channel and equalizer impulse
response (or) transfer function F(z) and it is expressed as,

The combined response of the channel with the equalizer is,

(ii) Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm
Criterion:
to minimize the mean square error (MSE) between the desired
equalizer output and the actual equalizer output.
(ii) Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm

 The adaptive algorithm uses prediction error ek to minimize a cost

function and updates the equalizer weights in a manner that
iteratively reduces the cost function.
 The input signal to the equalizer as a vector Yk and it is expressed as,

The output of the adaptive equalizer is a scalar given by,

The weight vector can be written as,

(ii)Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm
 The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek. When
the desired equalizer output is known (i.e., dk= xk), the error
signal ek is given by,

Where, Xk is the transmitted signal. dk may be written in vector

notation as,
(ii)Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm
To compute the mean square error at time instant k.

MMSE of the equalizer is given as,

P - Cross correlation vector between the desired response and the input signal,
R - Input correlation matrix.
 (ii) Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm
 The filter weights are updated by the update equations given below.
Variable 'n' denote the sequence of iterations, then LMS is computed
iteratively by,

Where, the subscript 'N' denotes the number of delay stages in the equalizer and
is the step size which controls the convergence rate and the stability of an
algorithm.
Disadvantages:
(i) Slow convergence,
(ii) Poor tracking.
 (iii) Recursive Least Squares (RLS)
Algorithm

RLS is Proposed to improve the convergence rate of LMS algorithm.

Error measures expressed in terms of a time average of the actual

received signal instead of a statistical average.

 is the weighting coefficient that can change the performance of

the equalizer.
 If a channel is time-invariant,  can be set to 1. Usually 0.8-1.
 The value of  has no influence on the rate of convergence,
but does determine the tracking ability.
The smaller the  , the better the tracking ability of the equalizer.
However, if  is too small, the equalizer will be unstable
 (iii) Recursive Least Squares (RLS)
Algorithm

Advantage: high convergence rate

Disadvantage: sometimes unstable

The RLS algorithm described above, called the Kalman RLS algorithm Uses 2.5N2
+ 4.5N arithmetic operations per iteration.
Chapter 2 : Diversity Techniques

 Usually employed to reduce the depth and duration of the

fades experienced by a receiver in a flat fading (narrowband)
channel.
 Without increasing the transmitted power or bandwidth.
 Can be employed at both base station and mobile receivers.
 Types of diversity:
antenna polarization diversity
frequency diversity
time diversity.
 For example, CDMA systems often use a RAKE receiver, which
provides link improvement through time diversity
 Spatial diversity is the most common one.
 While one antenna sees a signal null, one of the other antennas
may see a signal peak.
Fundamentals of Diversity Techniques

Random nature of radio propagation:

Multipath propagation
Independent fading of each Multipath component
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent
path may have a strong signal

Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation by

finding independent signal paths for communication, so as to
boost the instantaneous SNR at the receiver.

Path 2

Transmitter Path 1 Receiver

Path 3
 Fundamentals of Diversity
Techniques
 Diversity is a powerful communication receiver technique that
provides wireless link improvement at relatively low cost.

 Requires no training

 In virtually all applications, diversity decisions are made by the

receiver, and are unknown to the transmitter.

Two types of diversity

Microscopic diversity small scale fading
Macroscopic diversity large scale fading
 Fundamentals of Diversity
Techniques
Microscopic diversity
Small-scale fades: deep and rapid amplitude fluctuations over
distances of just a few wavelengths.
caused by multiple reflections from the surroundings in the vicinity of
the mobile.
results in a Rayleigh fading distribution of signal strength over small
distances.

Microscopic diversity techniques can exploit the rapidly changing

signal.
For example, use two antennas at the receiver (separated by a fraction
of a meter), one may receive a null while the other receives a strong
signal.
By selecting the best signal at all times, a receiver can mitigate small-
scale fading effects
Called antenna diversity or space diversity

Samples: Rake receiver, MIMO transmission

 Microscopic diversity
1)Spatial Diversity
Spatial diversity, also known as space diversity or antenna diversity

It has been widely used because it can be implemented simply and
economically.
The desired message is transmitted by using multiple transmitting antennas
and / or receiving antennas.
 Microscopic diversity
Generalized block diagram for spatial diversity

In this scheme, the receiver monitors the SNR value of each diversity
channel and chooses the one with the maximum SNR value for signal
detection.
 Microscopic diversity
2) Temporal Diversity
As the wireless propagation channel is time-variant, signals that are
received at different times are correlated.
For sufficient decorrelation, the temporal distance must be,

Temporal diversity can be realized in different ways namely,

(i) Repetition coding,
(ii) Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ) ,and
(iii) Combination of interleaving and coding.
 Microscopic diversity
3)Frequency Diversity
In frequency diversity, the same signal is transmitted at two or
more different frequencies.

By using redundant signal transmission, this diversity improves link

transmission quality at the cost of an extra frequency bandwidth.
 Microscopic diversity
4) Angular (or) Pattern Diversity

The angular diversity, enhances the decorrelation of the signals at a

closely spaced antennas by using different antenna patterns.
identical antennas can have different patterns when they are mounted
close to each other.
 Microscopic diversity
Angle diversity for closely spaced antennas.

This effect is mainly due to mutual coupling and it is explained as, Let
antenna B acts as a reflector for antenna A. whose pattern is therefore
skewed to the left.
Similarly, the pattern of antenna B is skewed to the right due to
reflections from antenna [Link], the two patterns are different.
 Microscopic diversity
5) Polarization Diversity

Multiple versions of a signal are transmitted and received via antennas with
different polarization.
The transmitted signal with horizontal or vertical polarization is received by an
antenna with two elements and a diversity combining technique is applied on
the receiver side.
 Macroscopic diversity

Macroscopic diversity

Large-scale fading: caused by shadowing due to variations in

both the terrain profile and the nature of the surroundings.
In deeply shadowed conditions, the received signal strength at a mobile
can drop well below that of free space.
log-normally distributed with a standard deviation of about 10 dB in
urban environments.

Macro-scope diversity: By selecting a base station which is not

shadowed when others are, the mobile can improve substantially
the average ratio on the forward link.
It is the mobile that takes advantage of large separations between the
serving base stations.
 Macroscopic diversity

Macroscopic diversity

Macroscopic diversity is also useful at the base station receiver.

By using base station antennas that are sufficiently separated in space,
the base station is able to improve the reverse link by selecting the
antenna with the strongest signal from the mobile.

Used to combat slow fading (shadowing)

Samples: Base-station handoff in cellular networks

 Macroscopic diversity

Macro-scope diversity

Base station Base station

Mobile
 Macroscopic diversity
Implementation Methods:
(i) On frequency repeaters: The simplest method for macro diversity
is the use of on- frequency repeaters that receives a signal and
retransmits an amplified version of it.

(ii) Simulcast:
 same signal is transmitted simultaneously from different base
stations.
 In cellular applications, the two BSs should be synchronized.
 Simulcast is also widely used for broadcast applications. e.g.
digital
TV.
 Diversity reception
Strategies used in diversity techniques
Selection diversity
Maximal ratio combining diversity
Equal-gain combining diversity
Hybrid schemes

Practical considerations
effectiveness, complexity, cost, and etc.
 Space diversity reception methods

Space diversity reception methods can be classified into four

categories

1. Selection diversity
2. Feedback diversity
3. Maximal ratio combining
4. Equal gain diversity
 Space diversity reception methods

(1) Selection Diversity

The simplest diversity technique.

The receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is
connected to the demodulator.
The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the best
one sent to a single demodulator.
In practice, the branch with the largest (S + N) /N is used, since it
is difficult to measure SNR.
A practical selection diversity system cannot function on a truly
instantaneous basis, but must be designed so that the internal
time constants of the selection circuitry are shorter than the
reciprocal of the signal fading rate.
 Selection Diversity
1)Received- Signal- Strength-Indication (RSSI) Driven Diversity:

This method requires NR receiving antenna elements, NR RSSI sensors, and NR-1
multiplexer (switch).
Thus, we can select a better antenna based on the highest instantaneous SNR
as soon as the RSSI becomes higher there, then it is connected to the
demodulator.
 Selection Diversity
(ii)Bit- Error- Rate (BER) Driven Diversity:

For BER-driven diversity, we first transmit a training sequence. i.e, a

bit sequence that is known at the RX.
The RX then demodulates the signal from each receive element and
then compare it with the transmit signal.
Based on the smallest BER, the suitable channel is selected for the
reception of data signals.
 Space diversity reception methods

(2) Feedback or Scanning Diversity

Very similar to selection diversity
The M signals are scanned in a fixed sequence until one is
found to be above a predetermined threshold.
This signal is then received until it falls below threshold and
the scanning process is again initiated.
The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those
obtained by the other methods.
Advantage: very simple to implement (only one receiver is
required).
 Space diversity reception methods

(3) Maximal Ratio Combining

The signals from all of the M branches are weighted and then
summed.
The individual signals must be co-phased before being summed.
requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna
element.
Output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs.
Advantage: produces an output with an acceptable SNR even
when none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable.
Gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known linear
diversity combiner.
 Space diversity reception methods
Maximal Ratio Combiner

The output of the diversity combiner =Sum of the branch SNRs

 Space diversity reception methods
(4) Equal Gain Combining

In certain cases, it is not convenient to provide for the variable

weighting capability required for true maximal ratio combining. In such
cases, the branch

Equal gain combining diversity sets all weights to unity but the
signals from each branch are co-phased.
The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a
number of unacceptable inputs is still retained,
The performance is only marginally inferior to maximal ratio
combining and superior to selection diversity.
 Equal Gain Combining

For EGC, the SNR of the combiner output is given as,

 Time Diversity
 Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time
spacings that exceed the coherence time of the channel
 Multiple repetitions of the signal will be received with independent
fading conditions.

 One modem implementation of time diversity involves the use

of the RAKE receiver for spread spectrum CDMA, where the
multipath channel provides redundancy in the transmitted
message.
 RAKE Receiver
 In CDMA spread spectrum systems, the spreading codes are
designed to provide very low correlation between successive
chips.

 If the multipath components are delayed in time by more than a

chip duration, they appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA
receiver, and equalization is not required.

 However, since there is useful information in the multipath

components, CDMA receivers may combine the time delayed
versions of the original signal transmission in order to improve
the signal to noise ratio at the receiver

 A RAKE is employed to do this:

 It attempts to collect the time-shifted versions of the original
signal by providing a separate correlation receiver for each of
the multipath signals.
 RAKE Receiver
The RAKE receiver is essentially a diversity receiver
designed specifically for CDMA, where the diversity is provided
by the fact that the multipath components are practically
uncorrelated from one another when their relative propagation
delays exceed a chip period.

An M branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each correlator detects a time shifted
version of the original CDMA transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlates to a portion
of the signal which is delayed by at least one chip in time from the other fingers.