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Humidity and Saturation

In industrial practice it is required to alter the vapor content of the air

• In drying operations the humidity of air entering the dryer plays important role.
• In cooling towers the volume of air leaving the tower depends on water vapor content
and the volume will decide about the fan capacity.
• In air conditioning the vapor content is the final requirement.
• Moisture to be removed from gases like ammonia and chlorine before pumping to avoid
corrosion.
Gases used in sulphuric acid manufacture are dehumidified or dried before they enter
converter.
• Moisture adjustment is required for better growth of certain plants- Floriculture
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• Server rooms are maintained with required humidity.

• Corridors of factory and packing rooms are maintained with certain humidity.

• Desiccators humidity level are maintained as zero.

• Fuel cell membranes for favorable reactions are maintained with optimum humidity.

• ICU humidity conditions are maintained to comfortable level.

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Vapor pressure:

The pressure exerted by vapor above the liquid surface at equilibrium at a particular
temperature.

Vapor pressure is a function of temperature.

All liquids exert vapor pressures above their surface at different temperatures.

Vapor pressure curve:

The graphical representation of the relation between vapor pressure and temperature is
the vapor pressure curve.
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Boiling point : It is the temperature at which V

pressure exerted by the liquid is equal to the A
P
pressure maintained above the liquid surface. O
R

P
Boiling points can be made to vary by adjusting the R
E
pressure in the container. S
S
U
R
E

Higher pressure in the vessel will give rise to higher

boiling temperature of liquids. TEMPERATURE

Lower pressure in the vessel will give lower boiling

temperature.
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Gas Vapor mixture:

Saturated gas:
The gas is said to be saturated if the partial pressure exerted by the vapor is equal to the
vapor pressure
Unsaturated gas:
The gas is said to be unsaturated if the partial pressure exerted by the vapor is less than
the vapor pressure.

The extent of unsaturation is expressed as relative saturation and percentage saturation.

PERCENT RELATIVE HUMIDTY: It is the ratio of partial pressure of vapor to the vapor
pressure x100 H  100
pA
R
p AS
PERCENT HUMIDITY : It is the ratio of humidity to the saturation humidity x100
H
H P  100
HS
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HUMIDITY : It is the moisture present in the gas per unit weight of gas, kg moisture/ kg dry air
pAM A
H
( Psys  p A ) M B
SATURATION HUMIDITY : It is the moisture present in the gas per unit weight of gas at saturation.
p AS M A
Hs 
( Psys  p AS ) M B

T
v H  (1 / 29  H / 18) x 22.414
273
Humid volume: It is the volume occupied by one kg of gas plus what ever water vapor it contains at given
temperature and pressure.
Cp H  Cp B  Cp A H
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Wet bulb Temperature: It is the equilibrium temperature attained by the water drop kept in the
atmosphere.

Dry bulb Temperature: It is the temperature measured by any ordinary thermometer or any other
temperature measuring device.

Adiabatic saturation temperature: It is the steady temperature attained by the gas when it is saturated
at adiabatic conditions.

Dew point: Temperature at which the unsaturated gas gets saturated on cooling. When the gas is
cooled, the relative saturation of the gas will increase and when the partial pressure of vapor equals
vapor pressure, condensation will occur and is observed as dew formation. The temperature at which
dew formation takes place is the dew point .
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Total enthalpy (Hy): it is the enthalpy of a unit mass of gas plus whatever vapor it may contain.

To calculate Hy , reference state taken is T0 as the datum temperature and the latent heat of
component A is based on liquid A at T0

If the gas is at temperature T and humidity H, total enthalpy is sum of 3 items

Where CpB, CpA specific heat of gas and vapor, λ0 latent heat of vaporization of liquid at T0;
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Adiabatic Saturation Temperature:

It is the steady state temperature reached by the gas when gas is saturated at
adiabatic conditions.
Consider the process of adiabatic saturation of gas with water. Gas with initial
humidity H and temperature T flows continuously through the spray chamber. The
chamber is lagged and so the process is adiabatic. Liquid is circulated by pump from
the reservoir in the bottom of spray chamber and back to the reservoir. The gas
passing through the chamber is cooled and humidified. The temperature of liquid
reaches a definite steady state temperature Ts called Adiabatic Saturation
Temperature.
If contact between liquid and gas is sufficient to bring liquid and exit gas into
equilibrium the gas leaving the chamber is saturated at temperature Ts. The makeup
liquid is supplied to reservoir at temperature Ts. An Enthalpy balance is written for the
process by taking Ts as the datum temperature. The enthalpy of make up liquid is zero
since it enters at Ts. The total enthalpy of entering gas equals that of leaving gas
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CS(T-Ts)+H λs= Hs λs

Where Hs is the saturation humidity at Ts, λs is latent heat at Ts

A curve of humidity Vs temperature for gases with a given adiabatic saturation

temperature is known as adiabatic cooling lines, the slope of the line is -Cs/λs
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Measurement of Wet-Bulb Temperature:

A thermometer, or an equivalent temperature measuring device such as a
thermocouple is curved by a wick, which is saturated with pure liquid, and
immersed in a stream of gas having a definite temperature T and humidity H.
Initially the temperature of liquid is about that of the gas. Since the gas is not
saturated, liquid evaporates, and diffuses to the gas. The latent heat for the
evaporation is supplied at first by cooling the liquid.

As the temperature of liquid decreases below that of the gas, sensible heat will be
transferred to the liquid. Ultimately a steady state is reached at such a liquid
temperature that the heat needed to evaporate the liquid and heat the vapor to
the gas temperature is exactly balanced by the sensible heat flowing from gas to
the liquid. It is this steady temperature, denoted by t w, is called wet bulb
temperature
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It is function of T and H. The precautions to be taken in the measurement of wet

bulb temperature:

The wick must be completely wet so no dry areas of the wick are in contact with
gas.

The velocity of gas should be large enough to ensure that rate of heat flow by
radiation from warmer surroundings to the bulb is negligible in comparison with
the rate of sensible heat flow by conduction and convection from the gas to the
bulb.

If makeup liquid is supplied to the bulb, it should be at the wet-bulb temperature.

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Theory: At the wet-bulb temperature, rate of heat transfer from gas to the liquid
may be equated to the product of the rate of vaporization and the sum of the
latent heat of evaporation and the sensible heat of the vapor.
(1)
Where q is rate of sensible heat transfer to liquid, NA is molal rate of vaporization,
λw is latent heat of liquid at wet-bulb temperature Tw
The rate of heat transfer may be expressed in terms of the area, the temperature
drop and the heat transfer coefficient in the usual way:
q = hy (T – Ti) A (2)
Where hy is the heat transfer coefficient between gas and surface of liquid,
Ti is the temperature at interface, A is the surface area of liquid
The rate of mass transfer may be expressed in terms of the mass transfer
coefficient and the driving force
NA = ky (yi – y) A
Where NA is the molal rate of transfer of vapor, yi, y are the mole fraction of vapor
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If the wick is completely wet and no dry spots are present, the entire area of the
wick is available for both heat and mass transfer and the area are equal.
The surface of the liquid is at the same temperature of the interior and surface
temperature of liquid Ti equals Tw. mole fraction yi is taken as mole fraction of
vapor in saturated gas at temperature Tw.
Equating the heat transfer and mass transfer equations

Where
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Following assumptions may be made without serious error;

The sensible heat is small in comparison with λw and can be neglected.
The term ( and ( are small in comparison with ( and may be dropped with these
simplification.

For a given wet bulb temperature both λw and Hw are fixed. If H vs T is drawn, a straight
line results with slope (. It is seen that the adiabatic saturation and wet bulb
temperature are identical.
If Lewis relation; this is approximately true generally for air water system and accurately
so when H =0.047. Therefore for air-water system adiabatic saturation line and wet bulb
temperature are same.
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Humidity chart/ Psychrometric chart:

The Psychrometric properties of the air-water system (DBT, WBT, Dew point, Humidity,
%humidity, humid heat, humid volume, Enthalpy) can be conveniently plotted on a chart
called Psychrometric chart

As shown in figure the x-axis represent the temperature scale, the y-axis represent the
absolute humidity. The wet-bulb temperature (adiabatic saturation) lines are indicated,
curves relating to the different % saturation are plotted. Humidity charts are useful for
rapid solution of problems of vaporization, condensation, and air conditioning where
process occur at, substantially constant atm. pressure.
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Methods of Finding Humidity from humidity chart:

1. Wet and dry bulb temperature given.

Draw a vertical from WBT till 100% saturation curve. Follow wet temperature line. Draw a vertical
from dry bulb temperature to cut the wet bulb temperature line followed and read the humidity
from the humidity axis.
100%satn.curve
 
 
Humidity

WBT DBT
Temperature axis
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Dew point given

Draw a vertical from dew point temperature to cut the 100% saturation curve. Read the
humidity.

100% Saturation curve

 
 

Humidity

Dew Pt.
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Dry bulb temperature and % saturation given.

Draw a vertical line from dry bulb temperature to the particular % saturation curve and
read the humidity.
% Saturation curve
 
 

Humidity

DBT
Temperature axis
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Note: Following values are assumed if not specified for air-water system
CpA= 1.89 kJ/kg 0C, CpB = 1 kJ /kg 0C,Cp water=4.2 kJ/kg λ= 2507.2 kJ/kg
 
Problems:

1.The dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature of an air sample are found to
be 30ᵒC and 20ᵒC respectively. Using humidity chart calculate i) Absolute humidity
ii) absolute molal humidity iii) % relative saturation iv) percentage saturation v) humid
heat vi) Humid volume.

From humidity chart corresponding to 30ᵒC DBT and 20ᵒC WBT the humidity is 0.011 kg /
kg dry air

Molal humidity = H x 29 / 18 = 0.011 x 29 / 18 = 0.0177 moles water / mole dry air

% relative saturation from chart = 42 %
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Relative saturation may also be calculated as explained below

Relative saturation= pv / pS
Molal humidity = 0.0177 = pv / pt - pv , therefore pv = 13.218 mm Hg
Saturation humidity from humidity chart corresponding to 30ᵒ C = 0. 027 kg/ kg dry air
Molal humidity at saturation=0.027x29/18 = 0.0435 = ps / pt - ps ,therefore Ps = 31.681
mm Hg
Percentage relative saturation = pv / pS x100 = (13.218 / 31.681) x100 = 41.722 %
% saturation = (H/ Hs) x100 = (0.0108/ 0.027)100 = 40%

Humid heat:
= 1+1.89 x 0.0108 = 1.0204 kJ/ kg ⁰C

Humid volume = (1/29 + 0.0108 / 18) 22.414 x 303/273 = 0.873 m3/ kg dry air.
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2.The dry bulb temperature and dew point of an air sample are 30⁰C and 18⁰ C respectively.
The air is cooled to 10⁰C. Calculate the amount of water condensed from 200 m 3 of original
air.
Humidity air entering, from humidity chart at 18⁰C= 0.013 kg /kg dry air
Humidity of air leaving at 10ᵒC DP= 0.008 kg air / kg dry air
Water condensed per kg dry air= 0.013-0.008= 0.005 kg water
Humid volume of air fed at 30⁰C = (1/29+0.013/18) 22.414x303/273= 0.8757 m3/ kg dry air
Therefore weight of dry air passing through = 200/ 0.87757= 228.38 kg
Total weight of water condensed = 0.005 x 228.38 = 1.1419 kg
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3. Calculate the enthalpy of air with 30ᵒC DBT and 20ᵒC WBT.
Humidity from humidity chart = 0.011 kg water / kg dry air
Enthalpy, Hy = CpA H (T - T0) + H λ 0+ CpB (T - T0)
Hy = 1.89 x 0.011 (30 - 0) + 0.011 (2507.2) + 1 x 30 = 58.2 kJ/ kg dry air

Humid volume: It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of dry air plus whatever water vapor it
contains at a particular temperature and pressure.
T
v H  (1 / 29  H / 18) x 22.414
273
m3/ kg dry air
Humid heat: It is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry air plus whatever
water vapor it contains through one degree centigrade.
kJ/ kg dry air

Cp H  Cp B  Cp A H
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4.Calculate the humidity of air whose due point is 20⁰C. Vapour pressure at 20 ⁰ C is 22 mm
Hg.

At dew point the gas is saturated . Therefore pp of vapor is 22 mm Hg.

Humidity= (pA/ Pt-pA) 18/29= (22/760-22)18/29= 0.0185 kg vapor/ kg dry air

5.Calculate the humid heat of air whose DBT and WBT are 30 ⁰ C and 20 ⁰ C respectively..
Calculate the amount of heat required to heat 250 m3 of air to 50 ⁰ C.
Humidity from humidity chart corresponding to 30C DBT and 20 ⁰ C WBT is 0.011 kg water/
kg dry air
Humid heat Cs= CpB+ HCpA= 1+0.11(1.89)= 1.02079 kJ/kg ⁰ C
Humid volume vH= (1/MB+H/18)22.414x303/273= (1/29+0.011/18) 22.414x303/273=0.873
m3/kg dry air.
Mass of dry air per 250 m3 of air= 250/0.873= 286.368 kg
Heat required to heat 250 m3 of air to 50 ⁰ C= 286.368x1.02079x(50-30)=5848.43 kJ
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Methods of increasing humidity

Live steam may be added directly in the required quantity. It has been shown that this
produces on it a slight increase in the temperature ,but the method is not favored generally
because any impurity present in the steam are added to the gas.

Water may be sprayed . In this case ,the temperature of gas will fall as the latent heat of
vaporization must be supplied from sensible heat of gas and liquid.

The gas may be mixed with a gas of higher humidity. This method is frequently used in lab
work when the humidity of the gas supplied to an apparatus is controlled by varying the
proportions in which two gas streams are mixed.

The gas may be brought into contact with water in such a way that only part of the liquid is
evaporated. This is perhaps the most common method.
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In order to obtain high rate of humidification the area of contact between air and
water is made as large as possible by supplying water in the form of a fine spray,
alternatively the interfacial area is increased by using a packed column. Evaporation
occurs if the humidity at surface is greater than that in the bulk of air. That is if the
temperature of water is greater than dew point of air. When humidification is carried
out in packed column , the water which is not evaporated can be re circulated so as to
reduce the requirements of fresh water. As a result of continued recirculation,
temperature of water will approach the adiabatic saturation temperature of air and
the air leaving the column will be cooled to the adiabatic saturation temperature of
water in some cases.
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Following are the two methods of changing humidity and temperature of gas from
A( H1,T1) to B( H2,T2) by adding water to gas

The first method consists of saturating the air by water

artificially maintained at dew point of air at humidity H2
that is along line AC and then heating at constant
C B( H2,T2)
humidity to T2 that is along line CB.

In the second method, air is first heated along line AD

so that its adiabatic saturation temperature
corresponding with dew point of air of humidity H2. It is A ( H1,T1) D

then saturated by water along adiabatioc saturation

temperature line, that is along line DC. In this method
an additional operation- the preheating is carried out on
air but the water temperature automatically adjusts
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Decreasing the humidity of air (Dehumidification) :

This is effected by bringing the air in to contact with cold surface , either liquid or
solid. If the temperature of the surface is lower than the dew point of the gas ,
condensation takes place. It would be expected that the air is cooled at constant
humidity until the dew point is reached and that subsequent cooling would be
accompanied by condensation. It is found in practice that this occur only when it is
well mixed. Normally the temperature and humidity are reduced simultaneously
through out the whole process . The air in contact with surface is cooled below its dew
point and condensation of vapour therefore occurs before the more distant air has
time to cool.
The humidity can be reduced by compressing air and allow it to cool again to its
original temperature and draining off the water which has condensed. During
compression the partial pressure of vapour is increased and condensation takes place
as soon as it reaches saturation.
Humidity can be reduced by removing water vapour either by absorption or by
adsorption.
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6.A sample of air is at 1.013 bar and 35 ⁰ C with a % saturation of 60%. It is required to alter the
condition to i) temperature 25 ⁰ C and humidity of 70% ii) Temperature 50 ⁰ C and % humidity
30%.Recommend operations to achieve above stated conditions.

Temperature 35 ⁰ C and % saturation 60.

Saturation humidity corresponding to 35 ⁰ C from chart= 0.035
Therefore humidity= 0.035x 0.6 = 0.021
Requirement 1) 25 ⁰ C and 70 % humidity, Saturation humidity at 25 ⁰ C from chart= 0.02
Actual humidity= 0.02x0.7= 0.014. Therefore this is a dehumidification operation.
Operation: Cool the air from 35 ⁰ C to its dew point that is 25 ⁰ C. Further cool to 19 ⁰ C , the
dew point corresponding the new humidity 0.014 and remove 0.021- 0.014= 0.007 kg water/
kg dry air condensed. Heat the remaining air from 19 ⁰ C to 25 ⁰ C at constant humidity.
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Requirement 2:
50 ⁰ C and 30% saturation. Saturation humidity at 50 ⁰ C= 0.088
Actual humidity= 0.088x 0.3= 0.0264
This is a humidification operation . Adiabatic saturation temperature corresponding to the air is
28 ⁰ C. The temperature of air corresponding to this adiabatic line is 47.5 ⁰ C
Heat the air from 35 ⁰ C to 47.5 ⁰ C at constant humidity. Spray water till the temperature
reaches 28 ⁰ C ( Water to be added= 0.0264- 0.021= 5.4 x10-3 kg per kg dry air). Heat the air at
constant humidity to 50 ⁰ C.
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7.A humidifier is conditioning air at 45 ⁰ C DBT and 30 ⁰ C WBT by heating outside air,
passing through adiabatic spray chamber in which it reaches 85% humidity and then
reheating to desired temperature. The out side air is at 5 ⁰ C and is foggy carrying
0.006 kg of liquid / m3 of air. To what temperature must the air be heated in first
heating operation ? What is the temperature of air as it emerges from spray chamber
before final heating operation.
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Basis:
1 kg of dry air entering the operation
Since air is foggy it is saturated. Therefore saturation humidity at 5 ⁰ C from chart =0.005 kg
water/kg dry air
Humid volume= (1/29+ .005/18)22.414x278/273= 0.7933 m3/ kg dry air
Amount of fog carried by air= 0.7933x0.006= 4.76x10-3 kg/kg dry air
Total water in inlet air= air humidity+ fog carried= 0.005+ 0.00476= 0.00976 = 0.01 kg
Humidity of air corresponding to 45 ⁰ C DBT and 30 ⁰ C WBT from chart= 0.021
During heating humidity does not change. Therefore humidity at the out let of spray chamber=
0.021= humidity of final air
Corresponding to 85% saturation and 0.021 humidity DBT= 28 ⁰ C and WBT= 26 ⁰ C from chart.
In spray chamber ( adiabatic saturation operation) the WBT does not change. Therefore the WBT at
the outlet of the 1st heater= 26 ⁰ C
From chart DBT corresponding to 26WBT and 0.01 humidity , DBT= 50 ⁰ C.
Therefore in the first heating operation , the air is to be heated to 50 ⁰ C. The temperature of air
when it emerges from spray chamber is 28 ⁰ C.
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8.A drier requires 300m3/h of air at 60⁰C and 20% humidity. This air is to be prepared from
atmospheric air at 30⁰C DBT with 20⁰ C WBT, by direct injecting of steam in to air followed by
passing of air over steam heated finned tube heat exchanger. Stem is available at 1.5 bar. Compute
the heat requirements for direct injection and for heat exchange. Latent heat at 30⁰C= 2430 kJ/kg,
CpA= 1.87 kJ/kg⁰ C, Latent heat at 60⁰C =2358.6 kJ/kg Cp B= 1kJ/kg⁰C. Latent heat of steam at 1.5
bar= 2487 kJ/kg
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Basis: 1 kg dry air passing through the units

Humidity of initial air corresponding to 30 ⁰ C DBT and 20 ⁰ C WBT from chart= 0.011
Humidity of final air from chart corresponding to 60 ⁰ C and 20% humidity = 0.031
Steam required for direct injection= 0.031- 0.011= 0.02 kg water / kg dry air
Enthalpy of inlet air= (1+ 1.87 x0.011)(30-0)+ 0.011x2430 = 57.33 kJ/kg latent heat at 30C is taken
Enthalpy of outlet air= ( 1+1.87x0.031) (60-0)+ 0.031x2358.6= 136.591 kJ/kg
Heat supplied by direct injected steam= 0.02x2487= 49.74 kJ
Amount of heat given by indirect injection of steam= 136.59- ( 57.33+49.74)= 29.52 kJ/kg
Quantity of steam used for direct injection = 29.52/ 2487= 0.0118 kg
Humid volume of air entering= (1/29+0.011/18) x 22.414x303/273= 0.873 m3 / kg dry air
Mass of dry air for 300 m3 of inlet air= 300/ 0.873= 343. 6 kg
Steam required for direct injection=343.6x 0.02=6.872 kg
Steam required for heating= 0.0118x343.6= 4.0545 kg
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Cooling tower:
When a warm liquid is brought in to contact with unsaturated gas, part of the liquid is vaporized
and liquid temperature drops. This cooling of liquid is the purpose behind many gas liquid contact
operations especially the air water. Water is cooled in very large quantities in spray ponds and more
commonly in tall towers through which air is passed by natural draft or by action of fan.
The process of cooling tower is to conserve cooling water by allowing cooled water to be reused
many times. A cooling tower is a special kind of packed tower. In the tower, part of water
evaporates into air and sensible heat is transferred from warm water to cool air. Both the process
reduces temperature of water. Only makeup water to replace that lost by evaporation and windage
loss, is required to maintain water balance.
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Consider cooling process as shown in figure where air and water flowing counter currently. Let T L1 and
TL2 are inlet and exit temperature of water, Hy1 and Hy2 are the enthalpy of inlet and outlet air.
Let L1 and L2 be flow rates of inlet and outlet water and G1 and G2 are that of air. The energy balance in
tower may be made by assuming evaporation rate to be negligible compared to circulation rate of
water. The flow rates do not change much in tower.
Therefore L1 = L2 = L’ and G1 = G2 = G’
G’ (1)
w y;

(2)

Equation 2 is the equation of a straight line passing through two points (Hy 1,TL1)and (Hy2,TL2) with
slope L’CpL/G’. The inlet and outlet properties of air water may be conveniently plotted to give the
operating line. A graph of saturated enthalpy Vs. temperature is called the equilibrium curve.
At any section of the tower let air with enthalpy Hy and water at temperature TL be in contact. The
enthalpy Hy of air is obtained from operating line and is less than Hy* , the saturation enthalpy. Hy*-Hy
is the driving force for the heat and mass transfer. If the air coming in is saturated , water will not
evaporate and cooling will not take place.
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Let z be total height of tower and c/s area = 1m2.

Consider differential height ‘dz’
Therefore volume of differential area = (1) dz
Let ‘a’ be interfacial area (m2/m3)
We have flux NA = ky(∆C) (3)
Mass balance gives:
(4)
Where G’ and L’ be average mass velocities (kg/m2s)w y;

At interface;
Humidity = saturated value (Hi’ = Hs’)
Therefore (5)
Energy balance gives:
(6)
Hy → enthalpy
Therefore
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Integrating with B. C. z= 0, Hy’ = Hy1, z=z; Hy’ =Hy2

Z = HTU X NTU
w y;
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Effect of air-rate on tower height and minimum rate:

For given water cooling operation amount of water to be cooled, its initial and final
temperatures are fixed. The conditions of ambient or available air are also fixed. Hence
w y;
quantities L , TL1, TL2, Hy2 and CpL are constants for given operations. G’ can be varied (air-rate). As
’

the air rate is decreased, the slope of operating line L’CpL/G’ is increased, the distance between
equilibrium curve and the operating line is reduced i.e. driving force (H *-H) is reduced.
This increases the number of transfer units and hence the height of tower. Therefore decrease
of air rate ultimately increases the tower height.
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If the air rate is decreased continuously, a stage is reached where the operating line becomes
tangent to the equilibrium curve at one point and at that point H*- H =0 and operation is not
possible. The air rate corresponding to this stage is called minimum air rate.
Gmin’ is determined using slope

w y;

TL1
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9.A forced draft cooling tower was designed to cool 10 lit/s of water at 50⁰C. Water was sprayed
from top of the tower with mass velocity of 0.015 kg water/ m 2s. Air at 28 ⁰C and humidity of
0.009 kg water/kg dry air is blown from the bottom at a velocity of 0.0116 m/s. If air leaves the
tower at 45⁰C and humidity of 0.035, find the temperature of cooled water leaving the tower.
Cp air is 1kJ/kg⁰ C. Cp of water vapor is 2.125 kJ/kg⁰ C. Latent heat of water is 2300 kJ/kg. Cp of
water is 4.2 kJ/kg⁰ C.
Enthalpy of air entering= (1+H CpA) (T-To) H λ= 1+0.009x2.125x28+0.009x2300= 49.2355 kJ/kg
4 5 C , 0.035 kg/k g air 10 lit/s water
w y;

Enthalpy of air leaving= 1+0.035x2.125x(45-0)+ 0.035x2300=128.85 kJ mass velocity

Humid volume of air entering= (1/29+0.009/18) 22.414x301/273 0.015 kg/m2s

50C,

=0.8645 m3/ kg dry air

L’ = 0.015 kg. m2s G’= v/v = 0.0116/ 0.8645= 0.01 34 kg m2s

H

T = temperature of cooled water= 33.06 C 28C, 0.009 kg water/

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10.A mechanical draft cooling tower is to be used to cool 105 kg/hr. of water from 43 ⁰ C, 29⁰C
using 8x104 kg / hr. of dry air of WBT 24 ⁰ C. The dry bulb temperature is 27 ⁰ C. Determine NTU.

Basis: 1 hour of operation

1 ⁰
TL = 43 C TL = 29
2 ⁰ C

WBT of air entering= 24

⁰C
Humidity
of entering air= 0.019 from humidity chart
w y;

Hy =
2 (CpB+H CpA)(T-T0) + Hλ0
(1+0.019x1.89) (27-0)+ 0.019x2507= 75.60 kJ/kg

, therefore H
y1=149.1 kJ/kg

The water temperature varies from 43

⁰ C to 29
⁰ C. Calculate the saturation enthalpy of air in this range and draw

the saturation enthalpy curve.

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An Induced draft cooling tower is to be used to cool water from 50 ⁰ C to 30 ⁰ C. A water rate of 2.4 kg/m2min
is to be used . The WBT of air is 20 ⁰ C. Determine the minimum air that is required. Also using the enthalpy
temperature diagram discuss qualitatively variation of tower height with increase in air rate. If air to water ratio
is 0.8 is used , discuss the effect of WBT on tower height.

TL1= 50 ⁰ C TL2=30 ⁰C WBT of entering air = 20 ⁰ C.

Saturated enthalpy at 20WBT= 56 kJ/kg dry air
The equilibrium curve is drawn by assuming temperature and finding enthalpy values from chart.
TL2, Hy2 point is located and a tangent is drawn from this point to the curve. The value of Hy1min is obtained
corresponding to TL1 as 258.
G’ is obtained from operating line equation corresponding to minimum air rate

, ,
G’ min = 0.998 kg / m2min

Variation of tower height with increase in air rate

As the air rate increases the slope of the operating line will decrease and the operating line moves away from
equilibrium curve and will swing with the point Hy2,TL2 fixed. This will result in more driving force and hence
the height of the column will be reduced.
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Effect of WBT on tower height

For a given water cooling operation L’,TL1,TL2 are fixed. The air to water ratio G’/L’ is also fixed for
problem as 0.8. As the WBT of air is changed, HY2 will change and therefore for different WBT we
will get different TL2,Hy2. With these points we will be able to draw different operating lines with
same slope to get parallel lines.

As WBT is increased, HY2 will be increased and hence the operating line will move closer to
equilibrium curve bringing down the driving force. This will result in increase in the tower height.
Therefore increase of air wet bulb temperature will result in increased tower height.,
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11.A forced draft cooling tower 5mx3m cross section is to cool 100 Tonnes of water / hr. from 30 ⁰ C to
13 ⁰ C with air entering at 7.5 ⁰ C and humidity of 0.004 kg/kg dry air. Air leaves the tower at 19 ⁰ C
fully saturated. Estimate air velocity and makeup water required . Saturation of air at 19 ⁰ C= 0.014 kg
water / kg dry air. Latent heat of vaporization is 2460 kJ/ kg

Cross section of the tower= 5x3= 15 m2

Water rate= 100 tonnes / hr. therefore L’= 100x103/15= 6666.67 kg/m2hr.

Enthalpy of air leaving= Hy1= (CpB+CpA H)(T-T0)+ Hλ= (1+1.89x0.014)(19)+0.014x2460= 53.94 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of entering air= Hy2= (1+1.89x0.004)(7.5)+0.004x2460= 17.3976 kJ/kg

Therefore G’= 13025.65 kg/m2hr.

Makeup water required= water evaporated + windage losses windage losses are normally taken as
0.2 % of water flow rate
= G’( H1-H2)= 13025.65( 0.014-0.004) 15+ (0.2/100)(100x1000)= 2153.84 kg/hr
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Methods of measuring humidity

Dew point method (polished surface method): if a cooled, polished disk is inserted into gas of
unknown humidity and the temperature of disc gradually lowered the disc reaches a temperature as
the mist condenses on polished surface. The temperature of the disk is slowly increased and the
temperature at which the mist just disappears is noted. From avg. temperature of formation &
disappearance, humidity is read from chart.
Psychrometric method: The common method of measuring the humidity is to determine
simultaneously the WBT and DBT and finding out the value of humidity corresponding to these
temperatures.
Direct method or Chemical methods: A known volume of the gas is passed over a suitable absorbent,
the increase in mass of which is measured. The method is very accurate but is laborious. Satisfactory
absorbents for water vapor are phosphorous pentoxide dispersed in pumice and concentrated sulfuric
acid.
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Cooling tower arrangements:

The common arrangements of cooling towers are shown in figures a-f. Figure a and b show the natural
circulation towers and these are also called as atmospheric towers and they depend on prevailing winds for
air movement. The natural draft design ensures more positive air movement even in calm weather by
depending upon the displacement of the warm air inside the tower by the cooler outside air. Fairly tall
chimneys are then required. Both these towers must be relatively tall in order to operate at a small wet bulb
temperature approach. Natural draft Equipments are commonly used where humidity is usually low. The
energy for power is not required to run the fans which are costly.
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Mechanical draft towers may be of the forced type as shown in figure C , where the air is blown in
to the tower by a fan at the bottom. These are particularly subject to recirculation of the hot,
humid discharged air into the fan intake owing to the low discharge velocity, which materially
reduces the tower effectiveness. Induced draft tower as shown in figure d and e has a fan at the
top avoids the recirculation of the humid air and also permits more uniform internal distribution of
air. The arrangements shown in figures d and e are most commonly used. For these mechanical
draft towers the liquid rates may be in the range 0.7 to 3.5 kg/m2s.