MEAT TECHNOLOGY

NOTES
JOMBO TZ
 Introduction
• According to the Food and drug Association meat is that
which is derived from the muscle of animals, closely related to
man biochemically and is of high nutritive value or simply
Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food

• Following the death of the animal or fish, many biochemical

and physical changes occur leading to the development of post
mortem tenderness.

• An understanding of these changes contribute to high quality

fish or meat products.
 STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE TISSUE

• Animal musculature is mostly of Mesodermal origin. There

are more than 300 muscles in the animal body.

• In addition to the skeletal muscle, which forms the bulk of

meat, a little of smooth and cardiac muscles are also present in
blood vessels and heart respectively.

• Smooth and cardiac muscles are involuntary in nature.

Skeletal and cardiac muscles are sometimes referred as
striated muscles due to their specific microscopic appearance.
 Skeletal Muscle and Associated
Connective Tissue

• The basic unit of a muscle is fibre.

• It is a multinucleated cylindrical cell bounded by an outer

membrane called the sarcolemma.
 Skeletal Muscle and Associated
Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue is
important in the texture and
edibility of meat e.g fibrous
protein, collagen, reticulin
and elastin.

• Each muscle is surrounded

by a sheath of connective
tissue known as epimysium.
 Skeletal Muscle and Associated
Connective Tissue
• From the inner surface of • Each muscle fibre is
epimysium, a septum of surrounded by a connective
connective tissue penetrates tissue layer called
into muscle and surrounds endomysium, beneath which
the bundles of muscle fibres is delicate sarcolemma or
or fasciculi. muscle cell membrane.

• This connective tissue is

called perimysium. It
contains major blood
vessels and nerves.
Skeletal Muscle and Associated
Connective Tissue
 Skeletal Muscle and Associated
Connective Tissue
• Fish muscle is tender because of less connective tissue.
Individual muscle fibres are composed of myofibrils which are
10-20nm thick and are the basic units of muscular contraction.
In fish the fibres are arranged between the sheaths of
connective tissue and are much shorter than in other meats.

• The connective tissue is present as short transverse tissue

called mycommata dividing the long fish muscle into
segments called myotomes.
 Skeletal Muscle and Associated
Connective Tissue
• The individual myofibril are separated by a fine network of
tubules called Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR), this reticulum is
a highly specialized mash of tubes concerned with calcium ion
(Ca 2+) control and hence the initiation and arrest of muscle
contraction.

• The myofibrils are bathed in a liquid matrix called sarcoplasm

which contains, mitochondria, enzymes, glycogen, ADP,
myoglobin and creatine.
Structure of Sarcomere
 MECHANISM OF MUSCULAR
CONTRACTION
• Contraction and relaxation of  striated muscle occurs by the
sliding action of the thick filaments over the thin filament,
with the length remaining the same.

• Proteins responsible for muscular contraction are myosin

(thick filament) and actin (major protein in the thin filament).

• Actin: major protein in the thin filament. It is bound to the

muscle structure much more firmly than myosin.

• Troponin and tropomyosin proteins also regulate muscle

contractions.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
 

• Ca2+ are released from the vesicle of the Sarcoplamic Reticulum in the fibrils,
following a stimulus received by the muscle fibre , initiated by the CNS. Calcium
stimulates myosin ATPase thus releasing the energy necessary for muscle
contraction to facilitate the sliding action of actin filament which forms contractile
acto-myosin.

• Calcium regulates actin-myosin interaction by directly binding to the Troponin-C

component of the I filament. Troponin is a myofibrilar protein associated with the
thin filament. It controls the interaction between actin and myosin.

• It is attached to tropomyosin another myofibril protein. Troponin is composed of

Troponin C, Troponin T and Troponin I. troponin C binds to calcium when the
muscle is stimulated thus facilitating the sliding effect of actin.

• Calcium interacts with troponin-tropomyosin component the globular head portion

with the myosin molecule interacts with actin by pulling the actin filaments parallel
to the fibre axis.
MECHANISM OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
 
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• Muscle tissue contains approximately 75% water and 25% solids, of
which 19% are proteins. Lipids constitute about 2.5 to 5% of muscle.

• Water is the largest component comprising two third to three fourth of

the muscle tissue.
– Due to polar behavior, water molecules are attached with the electrically charged
groups of muscle proteins. About 40.5% of the total water in muscle is so tightly
bound that it is almost impossible to dislocate it. The attraction of molecules keeps
on decreasing as the distance from the reactive groups increases. Thus, most of the
water exists in immobilized and free forms. When pH of meat is more than
isoelectric point, the enhanced negative charge increases the interfilamental space
resulting in retention of excess water. It may be noted that almost 70% of water
content in fresh meat is located within the myofibrils. Further, an increased water
holding capacity is associated with juiciness and tenderness of cooked meat. 
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• Muscle proteins have been broadly classified into three categories:

– Myofibrillar proteins -- soluble in dilute salt solution

– Sarcoplasmic proteins -- soluble in water or very dilute salt solution.
– Stroma or connective Tissue proteins-- almost insoluble
 
• Myofibrillar proteins: 
– These proteins constitute contractile part of the muscle and make up about
60% of the total protein in the skeletal muscle.

–  Myofibrilar proteins are of special interest to the technologists because they

contribute to approximately 95% of the water holding capacity, 75% of the
emulsifying capacity and to a large extent the tenderness of meat.
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• Sarcoplasmic proteins: make up about 30-35% of the total proteins in the skeletal
muscle.

– Myoglobin is a conjugated protein consisting of a prosthetic heme moiety and a protein moiety (globin). It provides
red colour to the muscle and serves as a carrier of oxygen to the muscle fibre. It is the most important pigment of meat
colour. Cytochrome enzyme, flavin etc. contribute very little to meat colour.
 
• Stroma or connective tissue proteins:
 
• The connective tissue is composed of an amorphous ground substance or matrix in which
formed elements mostly fibres and a few cells are embedded. The ground substance is a
viscous glycoprotein solution.
• The extracellular connective fibres are:
a. Collagen
b. Reticulin
c. Elastin
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• Collagen is the main fibrous protein the muscles and
significantly influence the meat toughness. It makes upto 40-
60% of the total stroma protein and 20-25% of the total
protein in the body. A fine network of collagen fibres is
present in almost all tissues and organs including skeletal
muscles. It is the most common constituent of tendons.

• Lipids
– Lipid is a major component of the carcass of a meat animal. It is highly
variable and is inversely proportional to the moisture content.
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
 
• Carbohydrates

– Immediately after slaughter, muscle normally contains a very small amount (nearly 1%) of
glycogen. It is a macromolecule of glucose residues which serves as a reserve polysaccharide of
animal tissue. However, it gets worked up before the completion of rigo mortis and plays a key
role in attaining the ultimate muscle pH. Both the rate and amount of glycolysis influence the
colour, tenderness and water holding capacity of meat.

• Minerals 
 
– About 3.5% of the total body weight is inorganic matter. Most of the total body inorganic material
is located in skeletal tissue primarily as salts of calcium and phosphorus and some other minerals
especially magnesium. In living meat animal, essential minerals like calcium, phosphorus, sodium,
potassium, sulphur, chlorine, magnesium, iron etc. and trace elements like manganese, copper,
iodine, zinc, cobalt etc. Serve a variety of important functions. These functions may be physical,
chemical or biological depending on the chemical form and the location in body tissues and fluids.
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
 
• In the conversion of muscle to meat, inorganic elements play an important role. Their
main function relates to development of rigor mortis and alteration of fluid balance
which cause a drop in pH and water holding capacity. Inorganic constituents also
influence the meat colour and tenderization. Several inorganic ions act as catalysts
during oxidation of meat fat, enhancing the process of rancidity development.

• Vitamins 
– The vitamin content of meat is variable, depending on the species and age of the animal, the
degree of fatness and type of feed received by the animal.Water-soluble vitamins are localized
in lean tissues whereas fat-soluble vitamins in fatty tissues. Variety meats have substantial
amounts of B-complex vitamins. Pork contains 5-10 times more thiamine content as compared
to mutton. The exudates from cut meat surfaces and drip loss during thawing of frozen meat
contain an appreciable amount of B-complex vitamins and amino acids. Most of the vitamins in
meat are relatively stable during processing or cooking. However, thiamine or to some extent
vitamin B6 are susceptible to heat treatment.
 Preslaughter Care, Handling
and Transport of Meat Animals.
 Preslaughter Care, Handling and
Transport of Meat Animals.
• It is not enough to produce healthy meat animals,
it is equally important to ensure that these animals
reach the point of slaughter in sound condition.

• Preslaughter care and handling can markedly

influence the quality and quantity of meat.

• Excited, stressed, bruised and injured animals are

not expected to yield wholesome meat.
 Preslaughter Care, Handling and
Transport of Meat Animals.
• The underlying principles for preslaughter,
care, handling and transport of meat animals
are:
– 1. To avoid unnecessary suffering of animals
during transport.
– 2. To ensure minimum hygienic standards 
– 3. To prevent spread of diseases.
 TRANSPORT OF MEAT ANIMALS
• Driving on Hoof

– Animals reared within 6-10 k.m from the point of slaughter can be driven on foot. This distance can
be covered in 4 to 5 hours. This mode is especially suitable for animals accustomed to pasture
grazing. It allows them to browse on indigenous grass or shrubs and take water en route. So the
animals suffer minimum weight loss or shrinkage due to travel.
–  
• Transport by Road Truck

– Distance up to 500 km or 12-15 hours journey may be negotiated by road truck. Such vehicles should
have non-slip floor. It is also important to provide temporary or permanent protective overhead
coverings, making provision for adequate ventilation. Proper partitions should separate unequal sized
animals or different species. If the journey is required to be continued after 12 hours, the animals
should be unloaded and offered enough feed and water. Transportation by road trucks allows
convenience of loading and unloading at the appropriate places.
 TRANSPORT OF MEAT ANIMALS
• Transport by Rail Road

– For distances over 500 km, it is advisable to transport animals by railways. It is

economic on maintenance and easy to handle. Besides, there is a saving on
extortions and other incidental expenses. Animals should be provided as lib water
and feed at least for an hour before the journey commences. It will be beneficial if
water troughs are provided within the roofed rail wagons. Railway wagons meant
for this purpose should have a non-slip floor and a free flow of air. . In fact,
shrinkage losses may come down to as low as 5 percent.

• Transport by sea: Ships are used only for international transport.

  
• Transport by Air. : It is very rare and used only for highly expensive
animals.
 EFFECT OF TRANSPORT ON MEAT ANIMALS

 
• 1. Stress and fatiguei:
– These conditions are inevitable sequel to transportation and do have a
bearing on meat quality. These conditions may at times lead to shipping
fever and transient to tany. Shipping fever develops due topasteurella and
requires proper treatment, otherwise virus may act as secondary invader
and aggravate the condition.
 
• 2. Loss of weight or shrinkage:
– Shrinkage takes place due to dehydration (Loss of water) and depletion of
muscle glycogen during the period of journey. In general, it ranges from 3
to 10 percent depending on the conditions and duration of transport.
 EFFECT OF TRANSPORT ON MEAT ANIMALS

• 3. Bruises, torn skin and broken bones Brushes are noticed

in most of the species due to transportation.
– The instances are particularly high in sheep and pigs. Muscular
bleeding may occur especially in pigs.
 
• 4. Death it may occur during long transportation.
– Sheep and pigs are particularly susceptible if animals of unequal
age and size are loaded in road trucks without partitions due to
suffocation. Sheep and goats couldalso die in long distance
transportation by ship due to non-inflammatorydiarrhea.
•  
CONVERSION OF MUSCLE TO MEAT AND EDIBLE FLESH

• Conversion of muscle to meat actually starts when someone decides to sell and
market their pigs because this is when ante-mortem stress occurs with the
marketing and handling of animals.

• The physical and chemical changes occurring in muscle after an animal dies are
very important parts of the conversion of muscle into meat.

• The combination of the timing and occurrence of early post-mortem events and
the process known as rigor mortis (muscle stiffening) have tremendous impact
upon many meat properties important to processors and consumers.

• Knowledge of the nature, the extent, and the rate of the changes occurring in
muscle the first few hours post-mortem is needed to understand meat's WHC,
emulsifying capacities, color, tenderness, juiciness, firmness, and susceptibility
to bacterial growth.
CONVERSION OF MUSCLE TO MEAT AND EDIBLE FLESH

• The reactions that take place from the killing of an animal or fish to the
time of consumption can be divided into 3
 
• (1).Pre-Rigor Stage or post-mortem glycolysis:
– This is when glycogen is converted to lactic acid resulting in a fall in pH as
lactic acid accumulates; the rate and extend varies with species and differs with
muscle.
– Well fed rested animals have large glycogen reserves therefore have a lower pH
in the post mortem state compared to meat produced from animals exhausted at
the of slaughter.
– For postmortem glycolysis to occur inorganic phosphate (Pi) must be available
to enable phophorylase to convert glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate which is the
first product of glycolysis. The energy is derived from ATP and can be
resythesised using creatine phosphate (CP).
CONVERSION OF MUSCLE TO MEAT AND EDIBLE FLESH

• (ii) Rigormortis:
– Refers to the development of the stiff and rigid condition in muscles .
– It occurs when CP levels fall making it impossible for the muscle to
regenerate ATP. Therefore ATP levels fall and ultimately diminish.
– The pH then falls and muscles lose elasticity thus become stuff or stiff.
Stiffening occurs because ATP prevents the myofibril proteins actin and
myosin from cross-linking to form the extensible actiomyosin.
– Therefore ATP results in the formation actiomyosin. Rigormortis occurs
12 hours after slaughter and may last 15-20hours in mammals and 1-7
hours in fish. Rigormortis leads to muscle shortening which is similar to
contraction which results in developing of tension in the muscle.
CONVERSION OF MUSCLE TO MEAT AND EDIBLE FLESH

• (iii) Post rigor Stage:

– Time when the meat and the fish muscles gradually tenderize
becoming organically acceptable as aging progresses. Mammalian
meat becomes acceptable two-three weeks at 2oC following the
dissolution of rigor. In fish Rigormortis is important as it affords a
stiffness to the fish considered a sign of good quality by consumers.

• The phenomenon of rigor mortis resembles that of muscle

contraction in a living animal muscle except that rigor mortis
is irreversible under normal conditions. The resolution of rigor
mortis takes place due to microbial degradation of muscle
structure in due course of time.
•  
CONVERSION OF MUSCLE TO MEAT AND EDIBLE FLESH

• Apart from the conversion of muscle to meat other

changes that occur during this stage are
– Destruction of the antibacterial defense mechanism thus
encouraging growth of microorganism (reason why meat
spoils)
– As pH falls enzymes (Cathepsins) are released from the
lysosomes and degrade the tissue.
– There is accumulation of compounds modify the intrinsic
flavor associated with meat.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT MEAT QUALITY
 1) ANIMAL TYPE:

• (1a)Animal species exhibit the following differences

– Myoglobin concentration in the muscle , this causes the meat to be
darker or lighter
– Flavor volatiles are specific for different (beef smells like beef, pork
like pork). Flavour volatiles are believed to reside in the fat.
– Ruminants tend to hydrogenate unsaturated dietary fat resulting in
more saturated fat than in non-ruminants.
– Difference in enzyme activity lead to variation in fate of post-
mortem glycolysis (PMG) and to the stability of post-rigor color
and texture
– Different textures in meat indicate differences in connective tissue.
•  
 1) ANIMAL TYPE:

• b) Breed:
– Breeds of the same species may account for differences in
– (i) Variation in myoglobin concentration of the same muscle.
– ii) Differences in variation in intramuscular fat
– iii) Rates of post-mortem glycolysis

• c) Sex:
– Males have less intramuscular fat than females while castrated
animals have more fat than either males or females. Considering
flavor entire males produce meat of undesirable odour/flavor.
 1) ANIMAL TYPE:

• d) Age
– Concentration of intramuscular fat increases with age & the degree of
unsaturation tends to decrease with age. Increase in concentration of
myoglobin leads to darker meat in older animals. The older the animal
the meatier the taste due to increase of concentration flavor volatiles. An
increase in intermolecular cross links in older animals leads to increased
toughness.
 
• e) Anatomical location
– Concentration of connective tissue varies with muscles, hence the
variation in texture from the same animal, Colour intensity is determined
by myoglobin concentration. Enzyme constitution varies and therefore
any post mortem changes involving enzymes will occur at different rates.
 1) ANIMAL TYPE:

• f) Regular exercise
– Frequent exercise will alter the constitution of muscle e.g
increased myoglobin concentration leads to darker meat and
increased glycogen stores lead to lower pH in the muscles.

• g) Nutrition
– Intramuscular fat is more in well fed animals and such
animals have less moisture levels in the muscle whilst
undernourished have significant amount of moisture. Use of
feed additives may affect the flavor of pork.
 2. PRESLAUGHTER HANDLING
• Pre-slaughter environment can impose various stresses to the animals.

• Stresses that result in high temperature and low pH encourage protein

denaturation with a loss of water holding capacity (WHC) and colour
making meat, pale, soft, and exudative (PSE). After rigor and thus is
observed in pork.

• The PSE is also attributed to sarcolemma destruction. At high pH the

WHC of muscles is maximal resulting in a dry relatively compact
structure which reflects little light while at normal pH the decreased
WHC of the fibres leads to a more open structure associated with free
water, capable of reflecting more light.
 2. PRESLAUGHTER HANDLING
• Stress resistant animals that survive the fatigue, exercise, fasting
etc can only undergo limited post-mortem glycolysis resulting in a
high pH which gives rise to dark firm meat which is unpopular
with consumers and is hygienically undesirable since the
environment is more favourable for bacterial growth.

• Oxygen utilizing enzymes in the tissue are more active than at low
pH. Therefore oxygen cannot penetrate tissues causing myoglobin
to develop.

• PSE meat is most affected due to the increased loss of water

holding capacity associated with protein denaturation .
 3. PRE-RIGOR PROCESSING

• If muscle contract after death and Rigormortis occurs while

the muscle is in this state, changes which affect the quality of
meat may develop.

• If meat is frozen pre-rigor and rapidly thawed massive

shortening occurs accompanied by loss of fluid or drip.

• Therefore meat is usually left on the carcass until rigor is

complete or hot boning processes can be employed where
temperature is maintained at 10-15 oC, chilling is also delayed
and this calls for high standards of hygiene.
 3. PRE-RIGOR PROCESSING
Cont’d
• Such pre-rigor meat has good emulsifying and water holding
properties and is used in sausage and ham.

• Electrical stimulation has also been employed to accelerate

rigor and to allow rapid chilling to be done without shortening
the muscles.
 4. POST RIGOR TREATMENT (Ageing)

• This ageing treatment gives rise to chemical changes that

result in meat tenderness.

• Ageing is not only necessary to improve tenderness but may

also result in undesirable colour changes like development of
met-myoglobin.

• During the storage, bacteria may proliferate and enzymes or

raw meat continue to act on the meat components forming
potential flavor precursors which maybe desirable or
undesirable.
• Lipid oxidation may also occur during air storage leading to
development of undesirable flavour compounds (esp Pork).
 Pale, Soft and Exudative (PSE)

• In some animals, muscle pH drops rapidly below 5.80 during

the first hour after exsanguination to the ultimate pH while
muscle temperature is above 36oC.

• This kind of meat is termed Pale, Soft and Exudative (PSE).

The low pH prevents or retards microbial growth. The rate of
pH change post mortem also influences meat quality.
 Pale, Soft and Exudative (PSE)

• Combination of high temperature and development of a low pH

(acid) in muscle causes denaturisation of muscle proteins. This
denaturisation causes:

– loss of protein solubility

– loss of water- and protein-binding capacity
– loss in intensity of muscle pigment colouration.

• It is the sarcoplasmic protein that is denatured and become firmly

attached to the surface of the myofilaments causing the lightening
of meat color. Loss of water binding capacity leads to exudation.
 Pale, Soft and Exudative (PSE)

• The gene that is responsible for PSE meat is the Halothane

sensitivity gene (HAL), which is associated with a fast rate of
post-mortem decline in pH and which is more likely in stress-
susceptible animals.

• Halothane positive animals are homozygous, and they can be

detected by exposure to halothane gas, which induces the
Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS).

• However, a more accurate identification of three genotypes is

now possible using a direct marker test (DNA Test) developed
after the identification of the gene (ryadonine receptor gene,
RYR1) and the discovery of the specific mutation.
 Dark Firm Dry
• Animals that struggle and are fatigued prior to slaughter have
lower glycogen levels resulting in higher post-mortem pH
producing a dark dried and close textured meat that is much
more susceptible to microbial spoilage, this meat is referred to
as Dark, firm and dry (DFD) and present a quality problem
especially in beef.
 Cold shortening

• Cold shortening is the result of cooling warm or hot carcass

meat too quickly after slaughter.

• Cold shortening is predominantly seen in beef as well as lamb

if the internal temperature of the meat reaches (or drops below)
14 °C, whilst the pH value is still around 6.0 – 6.2 at this stage
during rigor mortis.

• A temperature of around 14 °C is normally achieved only after

12-16 h in cattle after slaughter and, in pork, a temperature
below 15 °C should not be attained within 4-5 h after slaughter.
 Cold shortening

• The combination of high pH value and low temperature

present at the same time in muscle tissue damages the SPR
and contraction, as well as relaxation, of the muscle fibres post
mortem cannot be controlled properly any longer.

• When damaged in this way, the SPR does not reabsorb the
Ca2+ ions released for contraction and a permanent high
concentration of Ca2+ ions, together with the non-activation
of the enzyme actin-myosin ATP-ase due to the damaged SPR,
causes the muscle fibres to contract heavily.
 Cold shortening

• All energy obtained in an anaerobic way post-slaughter is

utilized for muscle contraction only and a large number of
cross-links between actin and myosin are established.

• As a result, meat is always tough and the solubility of the

protein is greatly reduced as well, as solubility correlates with
the numbers of cross-links within muscle tissue.
 Cold shortening

• Cold shortening does not occur at, or below, a pH value of 6.0

and, once such a pH value is obtained, the carcass can be chilled
more rapidly but, as stated above, temperatures in muscle tissue
below 7 °C at this point must be avoided.

• Another way to avoid cold shortening is the 10-10 rule, meaning

that the temperature within meat on a carcass should not be below
10 °C within 10 h after slaughter.

• This rule of thumb applies to carcass meat with bone in. When
meat is deboned in a hot stage of processing, the boneless meat
should not be chilled below 16 °C within 10 h.
 Cold shortening

• Red muscles are more susceptible to cold shortening than

white muscles because white muscles demonstrate a more
sophisticated and developed SPR, which is responsible for the
release of Ca2+ ions.

• The SPR of white meat can reabsorb Ca2+ ions more

effectively than that of red meat and the impact from the
damaged SPR in white meat is not as strong as in red meat.
 Post Mortem Glycolysis

• When oxygen supply to the muscle is depleted glycogen

undergoes anaerobic glycolysis to lactic acid.

• The level of glycogen in fish is much lower following the

excessive struggling normally associated with capture of fish
resulting in depletion of glycogen level.

• Postmortem degradation of glycogen in fish muscle occurs in

2 possible pathways i.e
– Hydrolytic or amylolytic
– Phosphorolytic pathway
• Hydrolytic pathway dominates in fish whilst in mammals
phosphorolytic pathway is responsible for degradation
Post Mortem Glycolysis
 Post Mortem Glycolysis

• Initial breakdown of glycogen may differ but the final pathway

glycolysis is the same for either animal or fish muscle.

• Rate of postmortem glycolysis in muscle is affected by

– temperature,
– muscle fibre type,
– hormonal secretions
– and intensity of nervous stimuli.

• Depletion of glycogen stores in fish results in a high pH at

rigor (around 7.0) giving rise to alkaline rigor.
 Post mortem pH

• Lactic acid production causes a drop in pH from 7.2-7.4 to

5.3-5.5 this fall retards the growth of spoilage bacteria and
impacts a more acceptable meat color.

• A higher pH is desirable in frozen fish to prevent toughness.

The netfall of ATP is related to onset of rigor mortis.
 ELECTRICAL STIMUMULATION
• Electrical stimulation (ES) of carcass muscles soon after
slaughter accelerates their normal decline in pH and may
enhance tenderization during conditioning.

• Although there was some early work on ES in the US,

commercial possibilities did not become apparent until it was
shown in New Zealand that stimulation prevented COLD
Shortening in lamb.

• ES now is widely used for BEEF and LAMB. There are some
who consider it can be used for pork, although care must be
taken to prevent PSE.
 ELECTRICAL STIMUMULATION
• As well as protecting against cold shortening, electrical
stimulation may improve
– meat tenderness,
– color and appearance, and
– subjective scores for youthfulness.

• However, cooking losses may be increased by ES.

 ELECTRICAL STIMUMULATION
• Apart from guarding against cold shortening, the beneficial
effects of ES on meat tenderness could also involve muscle
fiber fracture. In other words, when the muscle contracts
violently after slaughter it may rip up the muscle fibers
making them more tender.

• ES is ineffective on dark-cutting beef and post mortem muscle

stimulation is of no value without an accelerated decline in
pH. In other words, dark-cutters have little or no glycogen
after slaughter, so they cannot make much lactic acid, so they
cannot benefit from advanced glycolysis
 ELECTRICAL STIMUMULATION
• ES is ineffective on dark-cutting beef and post mortem muscle
stimulation is of no value without an accelerated decline in pH.

• In other words, dark-cutters have little or no glycogen after

slaughter, so they cannot make much lactic acid, so they cannot
benefit from advanced glycolysis

• ES may enhance the activation of lysosomal cathepsins while

the carcass is still warm. In other words, ES may turn on some
of the enzymes that make meat more tender during the
conditioning period.
 ELECTRICAL STIMUMULATION
• Different voltages have been used: from 32 to 1600
V.
• Different amperages have been used: from 0.5 to 6 A.
• Types of electrode have included
– aluminum foil
– probe or pin types
– rectal probes
– multipoint electrodes
– hooks and shackles
MEAT TENDERNESS AND
TENDERISATION
 MEAT TENDERNESS
• Meat tenderness is influenced by various
factors
– Sarcomere length
– Muscle fibre diameter
– Sarcomere fragmentation
– Collagen solubility
– Amount of marbling
– Distribution of marbling
 MEAT TENDERNESS
Trait Tender Tough

Sarcomere length 3.6µm 1.8µm or less

Muscle fibre diameter 40µm 80µm

Sarcomere fragmentation 6 15

Collagen solubility 28% 6%

Amount of marbling 7% 2%

Distribution of marbling extensive collected

 TENDERISATION

• To make meat more tender there is need to

– Make the sarcomere longer
– Disrupt the integrity of myofibrils
– Disrupt integrity of the connective tissue
 Tenderising by ageing

• During ageing there is breakdown of some of tissues or long

molecular chains of protein into smaller simpler substances by
enzymes.

• Ageing produces a more uniformly tender product however

there is risk of microbial contamination during storage. The
color also deteriorates and there is weight loss.

• Meat can be aged as carcasses, quarters, sides and individual

cuts in an unwrapped condition, at specific temperatures, eg 6-
7 oC for 8 days with controlled relative humidity and adequate
air flow to maintain temperature.
 Tenderising by ageing

• Can also be aged as small parts packed in heat shrinkage, gas

impermeable film, in this case the meat is boned out placed in
the bag, the bag is evacuated sealed and heat shrunk.

• The bagged meats are then placed fat surface upwards on

racks at temperature around 3 oC for 14 days.

• This method does not call for humidity control and there is no
weight loss however the method is costly and there is a
possibility of exudation making the meat unsightly.
 Mechanism of Post Rigor Tenderness

• Changes that take place during ageing are catalysed by 2 groups of

enzymes i.e calcium activated factor and lysosomal enzymes.

• The calcium activated factor is a calcium requiring endogenous protein

which is active at neutral pH in the presence of calcium ions. It degrades
troponin T, Z lines, connectin, M line proteins and tropomyosin.

• Troponin T binds Troponin I and C to tropomyosin and the thin

filaments, therefore dissolution of Troponin T results in fragmentation
thus disrupting integrity of connectin (disruption) or degradation of z
lines causes sarcomeres to be longer and disrupt integrity of myofibrils
resulting in myofibril fragmentation.
 Mechanism of Post Rigor Tenderness

• Therefore Myofibril Fragmentation Index (MFI) can be used

to measure meat tenderness. Connectin or titin a major
component of gap filaments (G filaments) becomes weakened
following ageing.

• Weakening of this protein coupled with degradation of nebulin

(in rabbits and chicken) results in destabilisation of the G-
filaments
 Lysosomal or Cathepsins
• Lysosomal or Cathepsins

• Cathepsin exhibits an optimum pH of 5.5 and are active

at 37 oC. They are released by lysosomes under acidic
conditions and upon completion of glycolysis
cathepsins hydrolyse myosin, α actin and actin.
Cathepsin-D in beef degrades Z-lines, α-actinin, actin
and desnin.

• Commercial used enzymes these include

 Commercial used enzymes

• Enzymes derived from tropical plants e.g papain, bromelain

and ficin they act on the connective tissue fibre protein
therefore they will be suitable for cuts containing large
proportions of connective tissue.

• Those derived from animals like trypsin.

• Those derived from either bacteria of Fungi these act primarily

on the muscle fibres with little action on connective tissue
protein. Their activity is lost at temperature above 55 oC
 Commercial used enzymes

• Tenderization action of enzymes take place mainly over

cooking temperature range and no activity occurs at
refrigeration temperature.

• Enzymes preparation are standardised before they are used for

treating amount used depends on taste or products required.
 Methods of applying exogenous enzymes/injection
method

• Addition of exogenous enzymes to raw meat can be done in

difference in different ways including injection into a live
animal prior to slaughter. When injected the animals
circulatory distributes enzymes throughout the carcass
therefore the muscle in the carcass contain same concentration
of enzymes however there is accumulation of enzymes in
certain organs e.g liver, kidney, tongue making them
disintegrate on cooling.

• Postmortem pre-rigor pumping of dressed carcasses this can

be done either by intravenous injections or intramuscular
injections using a series of needles were distribution is by
diffusion through the muscle.
 Methods of applying exogenous enzymes/injection
method

• Convectional needle injection of cuts using single or

multineedle pumps, the larger the injection volume the faster
the distribution in the meat.

• Dipping this is an old-fashioned method which proved in-

effective for a carcass since it over tenderises the surface
producing a marshy texture. It is effective at household levels
where it can be used on small cuts which are initially forked
and immersed in enzyme solution for about 20 minutes.
 Non Enzyme methods
• Stretching the sarcomere: carcasses are suspended and stretched with the
hind leg acting as a canti-lever or stretching rods and clamps can be used
as stretching devices when stretching is mechanically done there is
correlation between sarcomere length and degree of tenderness.

• Blade or needle tenderizer: this method employs machines with multiple

blade and or needles that penetrate the meat as it passés through a
conveyor.

• Marinading: this involves soaking a cut of meat in a solution of acetic

acid or lactic acid and salt. The solution also impacts acidic flavours that
would be practical when flavour is compatible with nature of end
product.
 Non Enzyme methods
• Pressure tenderisation: most effective in prerigor
meat where myofibrils are weakened using a
combined treatment of high pressure and heat
treatment (temperature used 45-60 oC).

• Electrical stimulation: reduces cold shortening

capacity leading to myofibril fragmentation. The
lower pH created enhances acid proteases.
 Non Enzyme methods
• Cooking:
– As cooking progresses contractile proteins in meat become
tender. For cuts that are low in connective-tissue. “Dry
heat” methods like pan fry/barbequing. For cuts with high
amount of connective tissue, moist heat methods eg :
Braising are used .

• Carving:
– Meat should be carved at right angles to the length of
muscle fibre for maximum tenderness.
 Non Enzyme methods
• Aging: Progressive Tenderization due to natural enzymatic
changes after Rigormortis due to enzymes like cathepsins
•  
 MEAT INSPECTION

• (1) Facilities construction and operational

sanitation
– Plants must be constructed so that they are clean and do not
contribute to hazards in meat.
– Operational sanitation -- specifications for water supply,
drainage, waste disposal, lighting, ventilation, refrigeration,
insect and rodent control; manpower: continuous
inspection patrol, reinspection privilege, surveillance of
workers.
 (2) Antemortem inspection
• Inspection of animals before slaughter, inspected in pens on the premises, on the day of
slaughter, in motion and at rest.

If acceptable, passed for slaughter If not, seriously crippled, reactors to T.B. test, immature
animals, minor epithelioma of the eye or orbital region.

• Condemned -- "downers", deads, moribund (about to die), comatose, temperature above

105 F (106 F if swine), suspect dies in pen, animals with obvious symptoms of a disease.

• Veterinary Medical Officer to condemn:

– All non-ambulatory disabled cattle; and
– All cattle showing central nervous system symptoms regardless of whether the cattle are ambulatory.
• If not already dead, condemned livestock shall be killed by the establishment. Such
animals cannot enter establishments to be slaughtered or dressed
 3) Postmortem inspection

• Inspection after slaughter of head, viscera and carcass. Inspection proceeds simultaneously with
slaughter and dressing.

Causes for condemnation:

• Whole carcass: tuberculosis (generalized lesions), hog cholera, pneumonia, abscesses, caseous
lymphadenitis, epithelioma (involvement of parotid lymph if ocular);

• Parts of carcass: abscesses, arthritis, bruises, contamination on the kill floor.

• Procedures for beef -- examine head: SPAM lymph nodes, masseters, tongue; viscera: lungs,
liver, heart, paunch, intestines, spleen; carcass: linings of thoracic, abdominal and pelvic
cavities, outside surfaces, palpate kidneys, AQL.

• AQL -- Acceptable Quality Level, statistical sampling plan to determine the cleanliness of all
carcasses processed.

• Final Inspected and Passed, Inspected and Condemned, Passed for Cooking, Passed for
Refrigeration
 (4) Product inspection

• (a) Reinspection privilege

• To assure that a previously acceptable cut, carcass or product has not become sour, rancid,
tainted, spoiled or adulterated.

• (b) Inspection of imported meat products

• All meats are thoroughly inspected in the country of origin and representative samples
(determined statistically) are tested at the port of entry for cleanliness, labelling, water content,
wholesomeness, net weight, and fat percentage.

• (c) Processed products inspection

• Supervision of manufacturing procedures. Inspectors must be fully informed of recipes,
manufacturing processes to prevent adulteration, false labelling and to assure sanitary
handling.

• (d) Inspection of boneless manufacturing beef

• Statistically sample boneless manufacturing beef boxes.
(5) Laboratory determinations and assays

• To determine specific levels of:

• Fat no more than 30% in frankfurters

• Water no more than 10% added water in bologna

• Curing agents no more than 120 ppm nitrite in cured bacon

• Phosphates no more than 0.5% in bacon

• Vegetable protein extenders no more than 3.5%, in frankfurters, of textured vegetable

protein

• Meat from other species no meat from other species in a product (detected by antigen-
antibody tests)

• Chemical residues specific tests to detect: hormones, insecticides, pesticides

(6) Control and restriction of condemned products

• Once inspectors condemn an animal, a carcass, a cut or

a product, it must be identified as Condemned and held
under lock and key or in suitably marked containers
and disposed of by:
– Rendering -- for inedible fats, greases or oils
– Tanked -- made into animal feed or fertilizer
– Incinerated -- burned
– Chemically denatured -- kerosene, FD & C #3 green dye,
diesel, carbolic acid
– Frozen -- held at -10° F for five days and sold as animal feed
 (7) Marking, labelling and application of inspection
insignia

• Meat labels for prepared meat items

– Name of product
– Ingredients statement
– Quantity of contents
– Inspection legend
– Firm's name and address

• Special markings (qualifying phrases)

– "Keep Frozen"
– "Cereal Added"
– "Artificially Colored"
– "Artificial Smoke Flavor"
Ante-mortem Examination of Meat Animals

• Ante mortem Examination of meat animals awaiting slaughter

is very necessary in order to produce to whole some meat and
thus safeguard the health of meat consumers.

• It should be conducted 12-24 hrs before slaughter by qualified

veterinarians in fairage pens.
•
• It should be ensured that animals are not subjected to any kind
of cruelty.

• All animals meant for slaughter should be rested at least for 24

hours and should not be fed for at least 12 hours before
slaughter but they should be provided with plenty of water.
 Objectives
 
• 1. Detection of animals suffering from • 4. To make postmortem examination
scheduled infectious diseases which more efficient, accurate and less
are communicable to man. laborious.
 
• 2. To detect certain diseases which are • 5. To protect the health of butchers
toxic or contagious and whose and slaughter house personnel.
identification is either difficult or
 
impossible during post mortem, e.g.
tetanus, rabies, farcy, listeriosis, septic • 6. To prevent unnecessary
metritis, sturdy in sheep etc. contamination of building and
equipment of the abattoir.
• 3. To prevent food poisoning out
breaks e.g. in salmonellosis carcass or • 7. To implement disease control
organs show little noticeable change programme with more precision by
on post mortem  tracing back the source of disease.
 Ante-mortem Examination procedure
 

• It should be carried out in two stages • Stage II

• Stage I • Detailed examination: Suspected or

diseased animals should be
• General examination : Meat animals segregated for detailed examination.
should be observed in the lairage pens
during rest as well as in motion. The • Their temperature, pulse rate and
general behaviour, reflexes, fatigue,
respiration rate should be recorded.
excitement, gait, posture. Evidence of
cruelty, level of nutrition, symptoms
of diseases, or any other • Animals showing elevated
abnormalities should be closely temperature and systematic
observed. disturbance should be detailed for
  further inspection and treatment in
the isolation pen. 
 Principles of judgement in antemortem examination

• 1. Fit for slaughter- Animals which are normal and free from
any symptoms of disease should be sent for sacrifice

• 2. Unfit for slaughter- highly emaciated, skin bound animals

and those affected with tetanus or communicable diseases like
rabies etc. or diseases which can not be treated should be
declared unfit for slaughter.
 Principles of judgement in antemortem examination

• 3. Suspects- All suspected animals need further attention. Some

animals with localized condition and recovered cases should be
passed for slaughter as suspect with instructions for careful
postmortem examination.

– i. Detained animals Some animals need to be detained for specified period

of time for treatment of disease or excretion of known toxic residence. 

– ii. Emergency slaughter It is recommended in cases where the animal is in

acute pain or is suffering from a condition where any delay in slaughter
would be contrary to the welfare of animal. It is done under strict
supervision so that there is no hazard to the consumer health.
Postmortem Inspection of
Meat Carcasses
 Postmortem Inspection
• Many diseases and abnormal conditions not detectable on Antemortem,
necessitate a careful postmortem inspection.

• It should be conducted as soon as possible after carcass dressing is complete, as

setting of carcass may render it difficult to expose and examine the lymphnodes
afterwards.

• It has to be carried out in a hygienic manner avoiding unnecessary cuts.

However, character and extent of disease lesions whether localized or general or
whether condition is acute, sub-acute or chronic ahs to be property determined.

• It will involve palpation of organs and tissues, incisions where necessary and
laboratory tests in certain conditions. All these aspects ate taken into
consideration before passing the final judgment.
 Objectives 

• i. To detect and eliminate abnormalities from the carcass and

organs including contamination, thus ensuring that only meat
fit for human consumption is passed for food.
 
• ii. To check the efficiency of slaughter and carcass dressing.

• iii. To diagnose disease conditions for control purpose.

 
• iv. To ensure that carcasses, parts or organs marked unfit for
human consumption are property disposed of or destroyed.
 Facilities
 

•  i. Inspection points should have sufficient and well distributed light of 540
lux or 50 foot candles.

• ii. Adequate hand washing units with supply of hot and cold running water,
liquid soap and towels.

• iii. Meat inspection knives.

• iv. Sterilizers for complete immersion of knives, saws, cleavers etc.

• v. Stamping ink – A solution containing 1 to 2% of fuchsine in acetic acid
is used as stamping ink for carcasses. Alternatively, it can be prepared
according to the following formula Methyl violet 35g. Cane sugar 450g.
Ethyl alcohol 1363 and water 1636 ml. Sugar is first dissolved in water and
methyl violet is added at the end. The stamp generally bears the  head of
the animal.
 General principles

• Postmortem inspection involves visual perception and palpation of

organs and tissues, incisions where necessary and laboratory tests
wherever confirmation is required. It should always proceed in a
systematic and hygienic manner.
 
• Examination of lymph nodes is of paramount importance in post-
mortem inspection, since these glands drain different parts of the body,
condition of the particular part drained by it.

• A meat inspector must have the knowledge of topography and normal

appearance of lymph-modes 9 colour shape, size etc 0 in a particular
animal. The size of a lymph node generally depends on the area drained
by it.
 General principles

• A swelling or enlargement or discolouration of a lymph node

indicates s a pathological condition. Some lymphnodes, which
drain lymph from important muscles, are of special interest in
meat inspection and these are referred as ‘meat lymphnodes’.

• In buffalo and cattle these lymphnodes are prescapular, axillary,

prefemoral, ischiatic and popliteal whereas in pig, these are prefer
moral and popliteal.

• In postmortem inspection, lymphnodes are exposed and examined

by population for size and consistency and if necessary, incised to
observe colour and diction of lessons.
 General principles

• As a thumb rule, viscera and head should remain identifiable with the
carcass until the inspection is completed. The carcass should not be
subjected to any mutilation.

• The final decision about the fitness of the carcass and offals must rest only
with the veterinarian. He should be armed with enough powers to stop the
slaughter and dressing operations and size the carcass, if there are
sufficient ground to do so.
 
 Procedure

• Based on the postmortem examination, meat

inspector can given any of the four judgements.

– a. Passed.
– b. Total condemination 
– c. Partial contamination
– d. Conditionally passed..
 Procedure

In general, postmortem inspection of buffalo and swine

carcasses should proceed in the following order.

• Head
– An examination of surface of tongue is done for FMD and
other form of stomatitis. Palpation of tongue from dorsum
to lip is carried out to detect actinobacillosis.
 Procedure

• Masseters are incised to examine for Cysticerus bovis. A detailed

examination of retropharyngeal, sub maxillary and parotid lymphnodes
becomes necessary to detect tuberculosis and actinobacillosis.

• In case of pigs, the portions of muscles from tongue are examined under
microscope or trichinellosis and inspection of sub maxillary lymph node
is done as matter of routine.

• Viscera
All viscera should be inspected as they are removed from the carcass.
Every organ and associated lymphnodes are examined. In case of any
abnormal condition, the organ are incised not to contaminate other organs
or carcass parts.
 Procedure

• Lungs: Visual inspection followed by palpation is carried out

for evidence of pleurisy, pneumonia, tuberculosis, fascioliasis
and hydrated cysis. Bronchial and, edoastinal lymphnodes
should be incised to detect tuberculosis.
 
• Heart: pericardium is opened and looked for tuberculosis
pericarditis. Heart is incised to detect petechial haemorrhages
or cysts
 Procedure

• Liver: The surface and substance of liver is examined for

fatty changes, actinobacillosis, and abscesses, parasitic
infections like Cysticercus bovis, fasciolliasis, hydatid cysts
or larval stage of Oesophaostomum.

• Kidney: Renal lymphnodes and adrenal glands should be

anthrax, tuberculosis or presence of artifacts.
•
Spleen: The surface and substance of spleen is inspected for
anthrax, tuberculosis or presence of artifacts.
 Procedure

• Stomach and intestine: The serous surface of these organs

could indicate tuberculosis or action bacillosis while interior
part reticulum could show penetration of foreign body.
Mesenteric lymph node is incised as a routine to look for
tuberculosis.

• Urinary bladder: The outer and inner surfaces of urinary

bladder are observed for diseased condition.
 
• Uterus and ovaries: These are opened for examination of
septic conditions. 
 Procedure
• Udder: This is examined for septic mastitis or abscesses,
Suprammary lymphnodes are incised for evidence of
abscesses or tuberculosis.
 
• Testicles: the outer surface substance and superficial inguinal
lymphnodes are inspected.

• Carcass The carcass should be inspected for evidence of

bruising or haemorrhage of discoloration. Local or general
oedema (drops) swelling or other abnormally of bones, joints
ot musculature.
 Procedure

• Age of bruise can be determined by using bilirubbin test.

Inspection of thoracie and abdominal walls should be done for
inflammation, abscesses or tuberculosis. Diaphragm should be
lifted and examined carefully for tuberculosis.

• After the carcass is spilt, cut surfaces of sternum, ribs,

vertebrate and spinal cord should be examined.
 Procedure

• Incision should be made on each quarter in the musculature

near the shoulder joint and near the pelvic bone for detection
of cysts (Cysti circus bovis and Cysticircus cellulosae) .

• Simultaneously prescapular, popliteal and prefomoral, iliac

and supramanuatory lymphnodes and also observed and if
necessary, incised for inspection.
 Slaughtering and Dressing of Meat Animals

• Slaughtering means pulling the food animals to death and thereafter

preparing the carcasses for human consumption.

• The essentials in the slaughter of food animals are that it should not cause
unnecessary suffering to the animals and bleeding should be as efficient
as possible. Besides, it should be safe for the be the handles also.

• There are two main types of slaughter methods.

– I. Scientific or Humane slaughter.

– II. Ritual slaughter

 Slaughtering and Dressing of Meat Animals

• Scientific or Humane Slaughter

• Such a slaughter avoids unnecessary pain and cruelty to the food animal
and ensure as complete bleeding as possible. It is also ensure speed of
operation and safety of the personnel.
 
• Stunning is a process employed to create a state of immobility or
unconsciousness at the time of slaughter to 1 minute. Immediately, the
animal is hostel and bloods the animal to death.

• In USA and European countries, stunning has been made mandatory by

legislation in abattoirs, excepting those where ritual slaughter is followed.
Stunning Techniques and Devices
 i.Mechanical instruments
• Instruments such as captive bolt pistol percussion stunner or free bullet cause
damage to the brain so the animal immediately losses the consciousness.
Common for stunning cattle and sheep

• An explosive cartridge is used to drive a bolt in the frontal bone of the animal
causing immediate immobility by destruction of the cortex and deeper parts
of the brain. In pneumatic stunner bolt is activated under pressure to cause
concussion without penetrating the frontal bone.

• Use of free bullet pistol may become necessary for large bulls having very
thick skull. Application point of captive bolt pistol differs with species. In
adult cattle or if employed for buffalo, it should be positioned in the meddle
of the forehead where two lines drawn from the medial can thus of each eve
of to the base of opposite horm cross.
 i.Mechanical instruments
• In horned goat and sheep, the pistol point is placed just behind
the ridge running between the collapsed followed by tonic
spasms and then movement of the hind legs Pithing is also
done some times in adult cattle after stunning with captive bolt
pistol.

• In this process a thin steel rod (approx 0.5 m) is inserted into

the hole made in the skull by the captive bolt pistol. It will
destroy the medulla oblongata and reflex muscular action will
not take place during sticking and initial dressing. Thus pithing
enables the slaughter man to proceed quickly and with safety.
 ii. Electrical stunning
• It is conveniently employed in stunning of small ruminants, pigs and
poultry. The instruments Either apparatus with a pair of tongs carries
electrodes by which alternating current (AC) is passed through brain.

• A high frequency current (250mA) of comparatively low voltage of

usually 75 volts is used for 10 seconds by way of application of
electrodes or tongs at the base of the ears on either side of the head.

• The electrodes are kept wet in a 20% saline solution to enable the
current to pass easily through hair and skin. It produces
instantaneous unconsciousness for about 30 seconds.
 ii. Electrical stunning
• Bleeding is very much efficient and the power consumption is
extremely low. If the current remains low missed shock may occur
resulting in paralysis of the animal, although it remains fully
conscious.

• It affects the quality of meat besides compromising the safety of

the handler. On the other hand, too tough current may cause splash.

• It refers to the appearance of pathetical haemorrhages throughout

the subcutaneous tissue in pigs. The capillaries get ruptured due to
excessive increase in blood pressure.
 iii. Chemical stunning
• Carbon dioxide gas stunning is most suitable for pigs and is followed in
many European countries. Co2 is heavier than air and can be contained in a
tunnel. The gas blocks the nerve endings.

• Animal is exposed to 65% carbon dioxide concentration through oval type

to 65% carbon dioxide concentration through oval type tunnel, dip lift
system or revolving wheel for 45 seconds.

• On exposure to gas, pigs become anaesthetized that are then shacked and
bled.

• Bleeding is quiet efficient since carbon dioxide stimulates respiration

favouring blood circulation. However, it requires more space and is not fast.
 Sticking or Bleeding of the Animal
 

It can be done by any of the two methods;

– i. After hoisting on the overhead rail, carotid arteries and jugular veins and
jugular veins of both the sides are severed across the throat region caudal to
the larynx.

– ii. On the flour skin is incised along the jugular furrow and carotid artery and
jugular vein of one aide are severed. The knife is then passed to the chest
severing the anterior aorta and anterior venacava.
– Sometimes, knife reaches too far in the chest puncturing the pleura and the
blood may be aspirated into the thoracic cavity. This blood adheres to the
parietal pleura especially the posterior edges of the ribs. This contamination
of lungs is called back bleeding or over sticking. It requires to be washed
immediately.
 Ritual Slaughter
 

• Slaughter without prior stunning of food animals as per

religious rites are referred -as ritual slaughter. There are
widely practical in many countries. In India and far East,
Practically all the meat animals are slaughtered in conscious
state

• Jewish method of Slaughter or Schechita. The regulations for

Jewish slaughter came into existence around 500 AD.
Consumption of pork was strictly prohibited for jews,
probably as a safeguard against tapeworm.
 Jewish method of Slaughter
• a. Animals to be slaughtered should be active. Moribund
animals which lie quite and also do not get up even by striking
with a stick must not be slaughtered. A blow on perforation of
the membranes of the brain constituted a mutilation.
Therefore, this method envisages slaughter of animals without
prior stuning.

• b. The incision across the neck is made by single rapid thrust

of sharp knife which severs the skin, muscles, oesophagus,
trachea, carotid arteries and jugular veins. This incision should
be completed without pause, pressure, stabbing or tearing. 
 Jewish method of Slaughter
• c. The dressing of the carcases should expose the diaphragm and
allow manual examination of thoracic organ.

• d. The blood vessels must be removed before the retail sail of meat
is undertaken. It is for this reason that only forequarters are
normally eaten. Hindquarters containing lot of butchers (Schochet)
and are thus rarely eaten.

• e. Kosher meat must be sold and consumed within three days of

slaughter.Jewish slaughter (Schechita) is undertaken by a Schochet
(cutter) Carcass fitfor jewish consumption is stamped with kosher
seal on the brisket while unfit is pronounced as terepha.
HALAL MEAT
 1. ISLAMIC RULING: TERMINOLOGY

• Halal mean lawful in Arabic, and used to describe objects

rather than an action. Normally when describing an action that
is allowed we would say it is obligatory (fard/wajib),
recommended (mandoub) or permissible (mubah).

• Haram means prohibited or unlawful, this term is both used

for objects as well as actions. When describing an action that
is not allowed we would say it is prohibited (haram) or
disliked (makrouh)
•
ISLAMIC RULING: TERMINOLOGY
• Mashbooh : Any food or drink which one cannot determine 
if it is Halal or Haram due to insufficient information,
unreliable evidence etc, is catagorised as Mashbooh. One
example of a Mashbooh product is Whey powder.

• Rennet is used in the manufacture of Whey Powder. Rennet

can be derived from animal rennet as well as non-animal
rennet. If it is derived from pigs or animals that are not
slaughtered in accordance with the Islamic law them it will be
Haram. If the source of rennet is not known then it will be
classified as Mashbooh.
THE ISLAMIC PRACTICE IS TO SLAUGHTER THE ANIMAL

• According to the following Hadith, Muslims must not

consume anything which is Mashbooh.

• The practice of slaughtering in Islam has always been to apply

a sharp blade to the neck of the animal.

• "Verily Allah has prescribed proficiency in all things. Thus, if

you kill, kill well; and if you slaughter, slaughter well. Let
each one of you sharpen his blade and let him spare suffering
to the animal he slaughters." [Sahih Muslim] #5167
 2.WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS FOR HALAL
SLAUGHTERING?

• There are six main conditions for Halal Slaughtering (dhabh), as follows:

• 1. The one that slaughters must be a Muslim

• 2. The one that slaughters must pray

• 3. The tool used to slaughter must be sharp

– The object used to slaughter the animal should be sharp and used swiftly. The Messenger
(saw) said “and if you slaughter, slaughter well. Let each one of you sharpen his blade”
pain. Thus the animal does not feel pain.

– The movements and withering that happen to the animal after the cut is made are not due to
pain, but due to the contraction and relaxation of the muscles deficient in blood. The blood
must be drained completely before the head is removed. This purifies the meat by removing
most of the blood
 WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS FOR HALAL
SLAUGHTERING?

• 4. The slaughtering must be merciful animal is being killed in

the name of Allah, but the words are not just for us; the animal
has the right to know that it has been slaughtered in the name
of Allah

• 5. The person slaughtering must mentioned the name of Allah

(swt)

• 6. Must ensure the blood is spilt from the animal

 3. OTHER POINTS RELATING TO
HALAL SLAUGHTERING
• As well as the fore mentioned conditions of
slaughtering, the following should also be considered.

– 1. The animal can be slaughtered by a woman

– 2. The slaughtering should take place in a slaughter house
– 3. The slaughter house must be free from contamination
– 4. Do not harm the animal
• It is Haram to harm the animal before slaughter using methods
such as stunning, striking it or giving it an electric shock
 THE TYPES OF MEAT WHICH ARE
HARAM
• Animals that die naturally.

• The blood of the animal.‚

• The flesh of swine.

• Meat slaughtered in other than Allah name.

• Animal killed by strangling.

 THE TYPES OF MEAT WHICH ARE
HARAM
• Animal killed by a blow.

• That which died by falling from a height. ‚

• Animal gored or partially eaten – unless you can slaughter

it whilst it is still alive
• ‚
• Animals killed on a stone altar‚

• That you raffle by arrows

 THE TYPES OF MEAT WHICH ARE
HARAM
• Donkey Meat

• Beast of Prey with Fangs

• Birds with Talons

• Carrion : (Carrion is the carcass of a dead animal

that becomes food for other scavenging animals.
This is haram (forbidden) to eat. )
 6.THE TYPES OF MEAT WHICH ARE HALAL

– The Meat of Chicken

– The Meat of Rabbit
– The Meat of Horse
– The Meat of Fish

– It should be noted that the above lists of haram and

halal meat types are not an extensive list, but a
brief introduction to the categories.
7.THE CONSEQUENCE OF NOT EATING HALAL

– 1. Your Supplication (Dua’) may not be answered

Abu Hurairah narrated,

– 2. You will incur the wrath of Allah (swt) if you

slaughter in the name of others

– 3. If you agree with the Mushrik (idolaters) that

dead meat is halal, it will render you a Mushrik
Microbial and Other Deteriorative Changes in Meat and
their Identification
Sources of Microbial contamination of Meat

• There are a number of potential sources of contaminatin of

meat within the abattoir itself. These include:

– i. Hides/skin and feet

– ii. Gastrointestinal contents
– iii. Instruments such as knives, cleavers saws, hooks etc.
– iv. Water used for washing carcasses and instruments
– v. Airborne contamination
– vi. Hands and clothing of the personnel
 
• Contamination of meat may also take place during chilling,
ageing, processing, packaging and distribution.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

The microorganisms that occur in meat may be bacteria or fungi.

• Fungi may be multi-cellular filaments (mold) or large single cells

with buds (yeast). Molds are capable of producing minute spores
under unfavourable conditions.

• Fungi gain upper hand over bacteria in meat when it is semi-dry.

Bacteria are unicellular microorganisms which are spherical or ovoid
or rod shaped and may occur in chains or clusters.

• Bacterial growth or multiplication takes place in phases:

 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• Lag phase : Bacterial cells increase in size under favourable

Conditions

• Log phase : Bacterial cells multiply and increase in number

• Stationary phase : Growth rate becomes relatively constant

due to Environmental limitations

• Decline or death phase : There is destruction of bacterial cells

either Due to nutritional depletion or application of Some
preservation technique.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• An understanding of growth curve enables the meat

technologists to apply suitable preservation technique to
prolong the lag phase

• so that bacterial multiplication is retarded or if conditions have

already favoured some growth, then to hasten the death phase.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• Microbial growth activity in meat depends on various extrinsic

and intrinsic factors. The extrinsic factors are temperature,
oxygen and physical stage of meat. Different groups of
bacteria have their own growth optima.

• Psychrophiles have their optimum growth temperature below

200C, thermophiles above 450C and mesophiles an optima
ranging between these two.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• A refrigerated temperature of nearly 50C greatly retards the

growth of most psychrophilic organisms responsible for the
spoilage of meat.

• These bacteria generally belong to genera Pseudomonas,

Achromobactor, Flavobacterirum (G-rods), Micrococcus,
Streptococcus (G+rods), in cured or vacuum packed meat
products.

• The growth of bacteria on meat is usually characterized by

slime formation. It should be noted that total bacterial
population is above 107 when most signs of
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• spoilage appeal on meat. Effective freezing damages

or kills most of the bacteria present on meat. It may
be remembered that meat spoilage molds are also
psychrophiles. On the countrary, food pathogens
generally belong to the thermophilic group of
bacteria.

• Oxygen environment around the mat will determine

the type of micro flora that will find favourable
conditions for growth.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• Bacteria found in meat may be either aerobic or anaerobic or sometimes

facultative. Bacteria that grow on the surface of fresh meat are generally
aerobes, whereas it is a different flora in the interior of meat.

• All molds and yeast that grow in meat are aerobic in nature. Use of
different barrier packaging films restricts the activity of aerobic
microorganisms.

• Physical state of meat such as whole carcass or primal cuts or retail cuts
or comminuted form also influence the rate of microbial growth.
Microbial load increases with the increase in exposed surface area of
meat.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• Important intrinsic factors which affect the growth of

microorganisms in meat are water activity, pH and redox
potential.

• The amount of water available in a food system for the growth

of microorganisms is generally expressed in terms of water
activity. In fact, water activity (aw) is defined as vapour
pressure of the solution (p) in a food system divided by vapour
pressure of pure solvent or water (p0). Fresh meat generally
has a water activity of 0.99 or more.
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• Most meat spoilage bacteria can grow only up to a water

activity of 0.91 but most spoilage mold and yeast can grow
upto a water activity of 0.86.

• This factor is commercially exploited in the production of

intermediate moisture meat products.

• Meat pH is yet another intrinsic factor which influences the

growth of microorganisms. Bacterial growth is best at neutral
pH (i.e.pH 7.0).
 Growth of Microorganisms in Meat

• It keeps on diminishing as meat pH goes down. If ultimate pH

is 6.0 or so, a large number of bacteria can still grow in meat.

• However, when normal ultimate pH of nearly 5.5 is achieved

in meat, bacterial growth is reduced to a large extent and the
growth of mold and yeast is favoured.

• Redox potential refers to the reducing or oxidizing conditions

prevailing in meat and this factor also influences the growth of
microorganisms.
 Deteriorative Changes in Meat 

• When meat depicts signs of decomposition and putrefaction, it is

referred as spoiled and becomes unfit for human consumption.
Besides microorganisms, intrinsic enzymes and insects also contribute
to eh spoilage of meat. Microbial spoilage of fresh chilled meat is
generally on the surface whereas it is within meat at higher
temperature. The causative agents and deteriorative changes are quite
different in aerobic and anaerobic spoilage.
 
• Under aerobic conditions, most significant symptom of meat spoilage
by bacteria and yeast is the slime formation on the surface which
results due to coalescence of a large number of individual colonies.
There may be discolouration of meat due to oxidizing agents produced
by bacteria or growth of colonies of coloured organisms.
 Deteriorative Changes in Meat 

• The production of off-odours is also usually encountered. Bacterial

action causes proteolysis of meat proteins and lipolysis of meat lipids.
The end products of proteolysis are simple peptides and amino acids
under aerobic conditions whereas sulphur dioxide, ammonia and other
obnoxious compounds like amines and ketones under anaerobic
conditions. Residual carbohydrates yield skatol and indole. Molds may
grow on semi-dried meats causing surface stickiness and whiskers.

• Under anaerobic conditions, meat decomposition is more offensive.

There may be putrefaction in the deep tissues such as lymphnodes and
bone joints, which is always accompanied by foul odours or taints.
Souring may also develop due to accumulation of organic acids.
 Identification of Meat Spoilage
• The identification of meat spoilage is based on the
deteriorative changes brought about by microorganisms,
intrinsic enzymes and insects.

• During spoilage process, several utilizable substrates are

consumed by microflora and new products are formed which
can be measured or determined in meat.

• Thus, meat spoilage can be detected by any of the following

physical and chemical methods:
 Identification of Meat Spoilage

• i. Some physical observations such as discolouration, slime formation,

stickiness, whiskers etc. give a clear indication of spoiled meats.

• ii. At low temperature, meat spoilage is accompanied by the formation

of many off-flavour compounds. Many of them owe their origin to free
amino acids and related substances.

• The production of H2S and mercaptans can be measured to ascertain

meat spoilage. Chemical determinations for the presence of ammonia,
indole, skatol, di-and trimethylamine etc. can be carried out to detect
microbial spoilage in meats.
 Identification of Meat Spoilage
• iii.The extract release volume (ERV) determination is
particularly helpful in detecting the incipient spoilage
in meats.

– ERV refers to the volume of aqueous extract released by a

meat homogenate when it is passed through a filter for a
given period of time.

– As meats undergo microbial spoilage, there is a complete

hydrolysis of proteins which significantly decrease the ERV.
 Identification of Meat Spoilage
• iv. Dye (usually resazurin) reduction test is many times
used to detect spoilage in meats. Spoiled raw or cooked
meat homogenate prepared from stomacher could bring
about resazurin reduction within 2 hours. This method
shows a very good correlation with bacterial numbers.

• v. Incipient spoilage in meat shows a simultaneous rise in

pH, bacterial counts and water holding capacity of meat
proteins. At the time of incipient spoilage, pH value is more
than 6.5 in ground meat but it may even increase to 8.5 in
putrid meats.
 Identification of Meat Spoilage

• vi.High thoibarbituric acid and peroxide

values indicate chemical spoilage of meat and
meat products.