Research methods in Psychology
• The research process entails forming an idea and then testing it.
• Psychological theories attempt to understand how the brain,
mind, behavior and environment function and related.
• A theory is an organized set of concepts that explains a
phenomenon or a set of phenomenon.
• Core assumption is Determinism i.e. all events, physical, mental
or behavioral are determined by specific causes, which lie with
in the individual or the person’s environment.
• Researchers assume patterns in mental processes and
behaviors and theories are about causes that underlie the
patterns.
What is a hypothesis
• a tentative testable statement about the
relationship between the causes and
consequences.
• If-then predictions, specific outcomes from
specific conditions.
• Theories are of fundamental importance for
generating hypothesis, when a hypothesis is
rejected then aspects of the theory need to be
revisited.
Scientific method
• It is a general set of procedures for gathering and interpreting
evidence in ways that limit sources of errors and give
dependable conclusions.
• To minimize subjectivity in the data collection and analysis
phases procedural safeguards are kept to increase objectivity.
• Proper and complete records of observations for other
researchers to understand and evaluate.
• No Secrecy.
• 2 challenges to objectivity- observer bias & in experiments
alternative explanations possible hence need for control.
Observer biases and operational
definitions
• An error that occurs due to the personal motives and
expectations of the viewer.
• The biases of observers act as filters through which some
things are noticed as relevant and significant & others are
ignored as not meaningful.
• Experimenters/researchers bring their own prior experiences,
commitment to a particular theory.
Remedy
• Rely on standardization and operational
definitions.
• Standardization is using uniform consistent
procedures in all phases of data collection.
• All features of the test and experiment should
be standardized i.e. all participants face
exactly the same condition.
• This allows for comparability across different
times, places, observers and researchers.
• Meaning of concepts also need to be standardized, hence
operational definitions.
• A concept is defined in terms of specific operations or
procedures used to measure it or to determine its presence.
• All variables should be operationally defined.
• A variable is any factor that varies in amount or kind.
• Cause and effect relationship- independent and a dependent
variable.
• Independent variable researcher manipulates
it, is the causal part.
• The effect of change is seen on the dependent
variable.
• For causal effect to be correct the value of the
dependent will depend on the independent.
Experimental methods
• Psychologists manipulate an independent
variable to look for an effect on a dependent
variable.
• Strong claims about causality.
• However problems of alternate explanations
can be found.
• Eg. Viewing violence on television leads to
high levels of aggression.
• Confounding variables can interfere.
• Not introduced by the experimenter, can
confuse the interpretations.
• Two types of confounds possible in
experiments are:
– Expectancy effects- the researcher subtle
communicates to the participant about which
behavior is desirable.
– Placebo effects- when participant change their
behavior in the absence of any kind of
experimental manipulation.
Remedy..
• Researchers use control procedures- methods that aim
to hold constant all variables & conditions except than
the one being studied.
• Instructions, room temperature, tasks, the way
responses are recorded etc should be identical for all
respondents. Only differences should exist in the
independent variable.
• Double blind control for expectancy effects.
• Placebo controls use an experimental condition in
which no treatment is administered
Remedy..
• Placebo control using
– Between subjects design where different groups
of participants are randomly assigned to chance
procedures to an experimental condition or a
control condition.
– Representative sample from the population.
– Within-subjects design- each participant is his or
her control.
– The behavior of the participant before getting the
treatment is compared with behavior after.
Criticized for
• Experiments occur in artificial environments
may result in distorting the behavior. May lose
the richness of natural situations.
• Subjects are in an experiment and hence, may
react differently.
• For ethical issues some problems can not be
studied in a laboratory setting.
Correlational Methods
• Psychologists use the correlational methods
when they want to determine to what extent two
variables, traits or attributes are related.
• Coefficient of correlation is used to, ranges from
+1.0 to -1.0.
• A positive correlation means as one increases the
other also increases.
• A negative correlation means as one score
increases the other decreases.
• Correlation does not imply causation.
Psychological Measurement
• Major challenge to measure psychological
processes.
• Begin by operationally defining the
phenomenon being studied, which provides
procedures for quantifying the phenomenon,
identifying its levels or intensities etc.
• Two ways are used to check the accuracy of a
measure- the reliability and the validity.
Accuracy of measures
• Reliability – consistency or dependability of
behavioral data resulting from psychological
testing.
• A reliable instrument gives comparable scores
on repeated usage.
• Validity means that the instrument accurately
measures the psychological quality it intended
to measure.
Self-report meaures
• Researchers attempt to understand the
internal psychological states such as beliefs,
attitudes and feelings.
• Self-reports measures are answers either
written or spoken to questions about the
internal state.
• Includes surveys or questionnaires with a
written set of questions and interviews.
Self-report measures
• Questionnaires can be open-ended or fixed
alternatives.
• Interviews would be interactive, with the
interviewer varying the questions depending
on the responses.
• Limited as self-reports cannot be used with
those who cannot speak the language.
• Sometimes participants can misunderstand.
• Influenced by social desirability.
Behavioral measures
• Ways to study overt actions and observable
and recordable reactions.
• Primary way of studying behavior is
observation.
• Used in a planned, precise and systematic
manner.
• For direct observations the behavior must be
visible and overt.
Behavioral measures
• In naturalistic observations some naturally
occurring behavior is viewed by researcher.
• No attempt is made to change or interfere
with it.
• Useful in an early investigation of a
phenomenon.
• Sometimes observation of small group or
single unit as case study.
Ethical issues in Human & Animal
research
• Respect for basic rights for human and animals
is a fundamental obligation of all researchers.
• IN 1953 APA provided guidelines for ethical
standards, most recent revision in 2002.
• Asserts that psychologists do not deceive
prospective participants about research that is
reasonably expected to cause physical pain or
emotional discomfort.
• Review boards in most institutions.
• That require
Informed consent- participants are given a
description of procedures, potential, risks,
expected benefits.
Assured of privacy and confidentiality of responses.
Sign statements declaring they have been informed
about the goals and consent to continue.
Risk & gain assessment- most experiments
have low levels of risk.
• However, if risk of certain emotional reactions or
stress, or psychologically disturbance is involved.
• Then the review boards examine the precautions
and weigh the benefits of the research.
Intentional deception- some researches
require deception as telling the objectives may
bias the results.
– The guidelines provide that adequate justification
of the importance be provided for the deception.
– Researchers must demonstrate that no effective
procedures excluding deception are available .
– At the end of the research the deception must be
explained and if the person must have the
opportunity to withdraw if they feel.
Debriefing should be given in the end of the
research so as to ensure that no one leaves
feeling confused, upset or embarrassed.
• Issues in animal research- while animal
research has contributed a lot however
objections of animal rights activists.
– Better conditions in animal facilities.
– Attempts to have minimally manipulative research
on animals, more observational.
