METHODOLOGY
AND DESIGN
Raquel C. Pambid, Ph. D.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research plan design is the researcher’s plan of how
the study will be conducted, the type of data that will
be collected, and the techniques or the means to be
used to obtain these data , the reasons for the choice of
the subjects, the manner of determining sample size,
the instruments to be used and their validation, and
the data analysis scheme which includes the
application of the statistical tools for treatment of data
arising from the study. These are determined after
variables are identified and qualified.
Elements to considered in the choice of Research Design
1. The total population from which to select the study
samples;
2. The method of selecting the samples or study
respondents;
3. The alternative versions of independent variables
under study;
4. The criterion measures evaluating the effects of the
independent variables; and
5. The statistical treatment of data, using various
tools.
Basic Research Designs
A. Experimental Research
This particular design is an inquiry of cause-and-effect
relationships, and is conducted in a specialized setting,
such as the laboratory, experimental unit or research
center. The researcher controls and manipulates the
independent variable and randomly assigns the subjects
to different conditions or situations.
Types of Experimental Research
1. True Experiment
An inquiry that considers four (4) properties of
experimental research, namely: manipulation, control,
randomization and validity.
Properties of True Experiment
A. Manipulation
The researcher subjects the respondents of the study
to a particular situation for a specific purpose;
B. Control
C. Randomization
D. Validity
Types of True Experiment Designs (Polit
and Beck: 2004):
A. Basic Experiment
1. The Post-Test only Design. This refers to the
randomization and experimental treatment of the
subjects that were completed, followed by a post on the
performance of the subjects on certain variables.
2. The Pre Test and Post-Test Design. This refers to the
pre-test and post-test conducted before and after the
experimental treatment was done to the control and
experimental group.
B. Solomon Four Design. This involves two control groups and two
experimental groups. One control and experimental group takes
the pre-test before treatment while the other group does not.
However, both groups will get the post-test after the treatment,
thereby segregating the effects of pre-test measures and
intervention before and after treatment.
Effects of Genetic Counselling and Pre natal Supervision on the
Incident of Maternal Complications in High Risk Women.
Groups Before After
With genetic counseling (EG 1) x x
with pre-test
Without genetic counselling (CG 1) X
Without pre-test
With prenatal supervision (EG 2) X X
With pre-test
Without prenatal supervision (CG 2) X
without pre-test
C. Factorial Design. There is simultaneous
manipulation of two or more independent variables
which permit testing of multiple hypotheses in a
single experiment. A separate analysis is done on the
effects of the independent variables on the dependent
variables and the interaction effects between these
variables.
Effects of family, study habits, academic performance
and skills in Board exam score and employability
Randomized Block Design. In this design, there are
two independent variables, but one independent
variables is not experimentally manipulated due to the
heterogeneous randomized assignment of subjects.
This is called the blocking variable. The blocking
variable allows the researcher to control the sample
size if it is perceived to be a confounding variable.
Effects of Touch and Music Therapy on the Heart
Rates and Respiratory Rates of Premature and Full
Term Newborn
E. Crossover Design. In this study, different people are
randomly assigned to different treatments. Subjects
are exposed to two different treatments or conditions.
The influence of one treatment on the subject may be
carried over to the next treatments.
Both Premature and Full-term Newborn will be
exposed to Touch and Music Therapy. Results will be
analyzed according to how each group responds to
both treatments.
2. Quasi-experiment
This is an experiment that lacks one or more of the four
(4) properties of the experiment. The missing ingredient
is either randomization or the control group or validity
component. This method ultimately depends, in part,
on human judgement rather than on objective criteria,
hence, validity of cause and effect inferences may be
challenged.
Administering a drug to a group of infants whose
mothers are heroin addicted, to see if the treatment will
result in weight increase or decrease of low birth weight
infants.
NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Types of Non-Experimental Designs
1. Basic or Library Research
The goals of basic research is to improve patient care;
alleviated the problem of nursing shortage; enrich the
nursing curriculum and strengthen the organization of
nursing service.
2. Applied Research or Action Research
This is undertaken for practical purposes. It seeks
solutions to immediate problems that have been
identified by the clients and the nurse in the actual work
setting. It is a collaborative process involving other
members of the health care team that provides solutions
to practical problems in the organizations.
The Effect of group study in the performance of the
students in RLE 101
Types of Applied Research
A. Historical Design. A critical investigation and analysis
of events, developments and experiences of the past. It
describes the past events in relation to the present
situations and then analyze and interpret the
implications of past events to the present trends or
practices.
The evolution of Nursing Practice from the time of
Florence Nightingale to the 21Ist century : significant
Indicators of Change and Transition from Past to Present
Practice of Nursing.
B. Descriptive Design. A study that describes the
nature of the phenomenon under investigation after a
survey of current trends, practices and conditions that
relate to that phenomenon. Descriptive studies
involves analysis of an extremely broad range of
phenomena, its result is a comprehensive presentation
and interpretation of statistical tabulations of data
yielded by a survey.
Types of Descriptive Research
1. Descriptive Normative Surveys. Self-reported data
are collected from samples for purposes of describing
populations in relation to specific given variables. This
method involves the classification and enumeration of
collated data which are gathered using the
questionnaires.
A survey on staff nurses and administrators to obtain
their perception on the extent of the nurses’
responsibility for patient education.
2. Correlational Studies. These studies examine the
extent of relationship between variables by
determining how changes in one variable relate to
changes in another variable.
Correlation coefficient. This data determine the extent
and direction of the relationship between two
variables conducted through (+) or (-) correlation
using a range of -1.00 (perfect negative correlation) to
1.00 (perfect positive correlation). A correlation
coefficient of 0.0 indicated the non-existence of a
relationship between variables.
Positive or direct relationship means that as of one
variable increases, the value of the other variable also
increases. Negative relationship or inverse relationship
indicates that as the value of one variable increases,
the value of the other variable decreases.
Is there any significant correlation between anxiety
and mid-term exams among baccalaureate nursing
students? As anxiety is higher, the score of the mid-
term exam is lower.
3. comparative studies. These are studies that examine
several intact groups to find out the difference
between and among them in certain dependent
variables of interest.
4. Descriptive Evaluative Surveys or Methodological
Studies. These studies are concerned with the
development, testing and evaluation of methods,
procedures, guidelines and instruments after which an
evaluative judgment is done.
This approach is also used to revise, modify existing
programs or develop more effective programs,
methods and procedures in nursing for more efficient
and effective delivery of health care. This study is also
known as developmental or evaluative research.
Training programs for new graduate nurses and their
clinical proficiency.
5. problem-solving. All researchers are investigations
leading to solutions of problems. One makes
assessments of needs and problems and generates
alternative solutions to problems. Its objective is to
prove specific situations derived from reliable and
accurate data.
How much nursing care does a particular patient
need?
6. Decision-Making. This study selects the most
feasible course of action from given alternatives to
solve the problem. It is useful in policy making and in
improving the image of nursing as a profession.
Should salaries paid to nurses be increased?
7. Case Study. This is an in-depth study of a single case
or limited number of typical, interconnected cases
intended to interpret their behaviour relative to the
occurrence of certain events or phenomenon of
interest to the discipline.
A case study of a patient with problems of oxygenation
8. content analysis. This study is the process of
synthesizing or dissecting information and messages
embodied in documents.
The practical implications of the nursing law (RA 7193
OF 2002) provisions for nursing education and
nursing service.
9. feasibility study. This type of study tries to
determine the viability of an undertaking or a business
venture and establishing an institution or constructing
infrastructure.
Establishing a coffee shop in Barangay Bagong Ilog
Types of data
1. cross-sectional data
A study is conducted on the amount of nursing care a
patient receives on certain days according to
categorization of needs and problems.
2. Retrospective data
Fear responses of children during physical examination.
The data will expectedly indicate previous unpleasant
experiences with health workers that could have
influenced the children’s behaviour.
3. prospective data
What will happen to cancer patients who are discharged
from the hospital after six moths?
Prospective and retrospective researches are sometimes
called longitudinal studies because they extend over a
long period of time. All experimental studies are
prospective, and have the advantage of the possibility of
manipulating research variables and observing the
effects of these after a period of time.
C. Combined experimental and non-experimental
research designs
D. Quantitative and Qualitative Research Design
1. quantitative Research
Types of Quantitative Research
A. Surveys. These types of research gather primarily
quantitative data as what people do, how, or what they
eat, how to meet their health needs, their compliance in
taking medications, and what family planning behaviour
they engage in, among others.
B. Methodological Research. Competence evaluation
instrument using nursing process indicators to assess
the clinical performance of nurses.
C. evaluative research. This is applied research that
aims to find out how well a program, practice,
procedure or policy is working out. The purpose is to
answer the questions of people who must make
decisions in terms of what interventions or policies to
implement.
Clinical training program for newly hired nurses and
their clinical performance proficiency.
D. content analysis. The term refers to the
quantification of narrative data of a research repost or
communications for purposes of analysis and
evaluation. However, it can be qualitative too. When it
pertains to the meaning of the information to be
disseminated.
The position of congress to the mal-practice bill for
physicians
E. clinical trials or intervention research. This is
designed to assess the safety and effectiveness of
nursing intervention. The study may involve an
experimental or quasi-experimental design and
quantitative analysis of variables.
2. qualitative research
Qualitative research attempts to obtain rich, indepth
and valid data which almost always relate to non-
experimental studies. However, it may also be used to
enhance the interpretability of quantitative findings.
Qualitative research is considered as soft science
concerned with the subjective meaning of experience to
an individual.
Qualitative research makes an in-depth description of
people or events and data collected through
unstructured people or events and data collected
through unstructured interview and participant
observation. Qualitative research generally uses the
inductive approach. It is not limited to already existing
theories but is also open to new ideas.
Types of qualitative research
Phenomenological studies. These particular studies
examine the lived experiences of inividual about a
phenomenon through description and analysis such as
the stress and anxiety students feel during
examinations. The goal is to describe the lived
experiences and lived human relations or being in the
world of people that are of interest to the researcher or
to phenomenologists.
This study involves the following steps
1. bracketing
2. intuiting
3. analyzing
4. describing
B. Ethnographic Studies. This refer to the collection and
analysis of data on the lifestyle and daily activities of
ethnics. Data involve description and interpretation of
cultural and social behaviour of people in a group or
system, primarily to understand their world view and
how their culture is communicated and portrayed.
The lifestyle, beliefs and health habits of the Aetas of
Mt. Pinatubo.
D. Historical Studies. These studies involve
identification, location, critical evaluation and
synthesis of past events in order to shed light on
present behaviour, trends or practices.
Florence Nightingale’s political power in the 19th century
which effected change in nursing practice
E. Case studies. These refer to the in-depth examination
and analysis of people or groups of people in relation to
nursing issues or problems that are important to the
client and the researcher. Data includes the client’s
history, growth and development patterns and or
circumstances affecting the client under study. This
eventually leads to the formulation and implementation
of the nursing care plan specific to the case being
studied.
Case study of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease.
F. Field Studies. These consist of the natural
investigations done in the community such as in
nursing homes, housing projects, and clinical wards,
among others.
G. Biographies. These studies explore the life of an
individual. Data come from collection of life
documents that describe the turning point or
significant moments in the life of an individual. Data
also include personal history, growth and development
patterns, significant accomplishments and the
implications of these to the individual and to society.
The life ideals of Dr. Jose Rizal
C. Grounded Theory Studies. These refer to analysis of
data leading to the development of a theory. Data
include in-depth interview and observation of the
study participants to generate comprehensive
explanations of phenomena grounded in reality.
The experience of caring for a woman with high-risk
pregnancy.
