Engineering Hydraulics
Simple Pipe
Networks
Simple Pipe Networks
Simple Pipe Networks
For all pipe combinations the following basic
principles apply:
(1) mass conservation at junctions
(total flow in = total flow out)
(2) there can be only one value of head at
any one point
(3) each pipe must satisfy its individual
resistance law
(head-loss vs. discharge relation) h =αQ2
Simple Pipe Networks
The last of these comes from the proportionality
between head loss and dynamic head
λ is the friction factor and
K is the sum of minor loss coefficients.
For hand calculations, the coefficient α is often taken
as a constant for each pipe (although, in reality, it will
vary slightly with flow rate)
h =αQ2
Pipes in Series
Q1 = Q2 same flow in each pipe
ΔHT = ΔH1 + ΔH2 total head loss is sum of
individual losses
Pipes in Parallel
ΔH1 = ΔH2 same head loss across each pipe
Q = Q1+Q2 total flow is sum of individual flows
Branched Pipes–Single Junction
This is a classic
problem also
known as the
three-reservoir
problem
Heads HA, HB and
HC are known
(from the top-
water levels in the
reservoirs)
Branched Pipes–Single Junction
The head at J is adjusted
(iteratively) to satisfy;
a) the loss equation
(h=αQ2) for each pipe
Although we consider only 3
reservoirs, the problem and its
b) continuity at junction J solution method clearly
generalise to any number of
reservoirs.
Solution Procedure
(1) Guess an initial HJ
(2) Calculate flow rates in all pipes (from head differences)
(3) Calculate flow into and flow out of J
(4) If necessary, adjust HJ to reduce any flow imbalance and
repeat from (2)
If the direction of flow in pipe BJ is not obvious then a good
initial guess is to set HJ = HB so that there is initially no
flow in this pipe.
The first flow-rate calculation will then establish whether HJ
should be lowered or raised and hence the direction of
flow in this pipe.
Example
Reservoirs A, B and C have constant water levels of 150,
120 and 90 m respectively above datum and are
connected by pipes to a single junction J at elevation 125
m. The length (L), diameter (D), friction factor (λ) and
minor-loss coefficient (K) of each pipe are given below.
Pipe L (m) D (m) λ K
JA 1600 0.3 0.015 40
JB 1600 0.2 0.015 25
JC 2400 0.25 0.025 50
(a) Calculate the flow in each pipe.
(b) Calculate the reading of a Bourdon (absolute) pressure
gauge attached to the junction J
Solution
First, prepare head-loss vs discharge
relations for each pipe:
Solution
Substituting L, D, λ and K for each pipe we
obtain the head-loss vs discharge relationships:
The value of HJ is varied until the net flow out of J is 0.
Solution
The flow in each pipe is calculated for a sequence of
values of HJ until the flow into junction J equals the
flow out of junction J.
If there is more flow into the junction than out of it,
HJ needs to be increased.
If there is more flow out of the junction than into it,
HJ needs to be decreased.
After the first two guesses at HJ, subsequent iterations
are guided by interpolation.
Solution
The working is conveniently set out in a table.
The quantity of flow in each pipe is given in the bottom
row of the table, with the direction implied by the sign
Solution
A Bourdon gauge measures absolute pressure.
From the piezometric head at the junction:
where p is the gauge pressure. Hence,
Taking atmospheric pressure as 101000 Pa [(N/m2),(kg/ms2)],
the absolute pressure is then 101000 + 67000 = 168000 Pa
Answer: 1.68 bar
Complex Pipe Networks
The Head Balance Method (Loop
Method - Hardy-Cross method)
The quantity balance Method
(Nodal Method)
The gradient method
The Head Balance Method
(Loop Method - Hardy-Cross method)
Used for networks made up of
a series of closed loops
The outflows from the system
take place at the junctions
The external flows are known
Basic Idea Start with estimated
flows in the pipes which should
satisfy continuity at junctions
Apply iterative flow corrections δQ until the algebraic
sum of the head losses around each closed loop is 0
The Head Balance Method
(Loop Method - Hardy-Cross method)
Adopt a suitable sign convention (Q positive if
clockwise) in each loop. The signed head loss for
any particular pipe is then
2
h sQ
where s = +1 if Q is positive and –1 if Q is
negative.
The Head Balance Method
(Loop Method - Hardy-Cross method)
Initially, the net head loss round a closed
loop probably won’t be 0. To try to achieve
this after perturbing the flow in all pipes of
a loop by δQ we require
h s (Q Q) 2 0
loop
where δQ is the same for every pipe in the
loop.
The Head Balance Method
(Loop Method - Hardy-Cross method)
The requirement is
c h cc h
If
c h cc h
The clockwise Q must
be increased by δQ
The Head Balance Method
(Loop Method - Hardy-Cross method)
Algorithm
- Divide the network into closed loops.
- Start with any flow satisfying continuity.
For each loop in turn:
Q QQ
h
- Calculate 2 Q 2 h / Q
- update all pipes in this loop by δQ;
Repeat until the net head change around all loops is sufficiently
small.
The negative sing indicates that
the positive (clocwise) values of Q are to be reduced and
negative (anticlocwise) values of Q are to be increased
The Head Balance Method
(Loop Method - Hardy-Cross method)
Note that where two loops share a common
pipe the signed flow rates have opposite signs.
The quantity balance Method
(Nodal Method)
Used for loops or branches where
the external heads are known.
Basic Method: Start with
guessed heads Hi at each
junction and calculate the i
resulting flow in each pipe.
Apply iterative head
j
corrections δHi so as to satisfy
continuity at each junction.
(The 3-reservoir problem is
the simplest case, with a
single junction).
The quantity balance
Method (Nodal Method)
