Chapter 2

Software Processes & Models

Objectives

 To introduce software process models

 To describe three generic process models and when they may be used
 To describe outline process models for requirements engineering, software
development, testing and evolution
 To introduce CASE technology to support software process activities
Topics covered
 Software process models
 Process iteration
 Process activities
 Computer-aided software engineering
2.0. The software process
 A structured set of activities required to develop a
software system
 Specification;
 Design and implementation ;
 Validation;
 Evolution.
 A software process model is an abstract representation of a
process. It presents a description of a process from some
particular perspective.
2.1. Generic software process models
 The waterfall model
 Separate and distinct phases of specification and development.
 Evolutionary development
 Specification, development and validation are interleaved.
 Component-based software engineering
 The system is assembled from existing components.
 There are many variants of these models e.g. formal
development where a waterfall-like process is used but the
specification is a formal specification that is refined through
several stages to an implementable design.
Waterfall model
Requirements
definition

System and
software design

Implementa tion
and unit testing

Integration and
system testing

Oper ation and

maintenance
Waterfall model phases
 Requirements analysis and definition
 System and software design
 Implementation and unit testing
 Integration and system testing
 Operation and maintenance
 The main drawback of the waterfall model is the difficulty of accommodating
change after the process is underway. One phase has to be complete before
moving onto the next phase.
Waterfall model problems
 Inflexible partitioning of the project into distinct stages makes
it difficult to respond to changing customer requirements.
 Therefore, this model is only appropriate when the
requirements are well-understood and changes will be fairly
limited during the design process.
 Few business systems have stable requirements.
 The waterfall model is mostly used for large systems
engineering projects where a system is developed at several
sites.
Evolutionary development
 There are two types of evolutionary development:
 Exploratory development
 Objective is to work with customers and to evolve a final system from an initial outline
specification. Should start with well-understood requirements and add new features as
proposed by the customer.
 Throw-away prototyping
 Objective is to understand the system requirements. Should start with poorly understood
requirements to clarify what is really needed.
Evolutionary development
Concurrent
acti vities

Initial
Specification version

Outline Intermedia te
Development versions
description

Final
Validation version
 Evolutionary development
 Problems
 Lack of process visibility;
 Systems are often poorly structured;
 Special skills (e.g. in languages for rapid prototyping) may be required.
 Applicability
 For small or medium-size interactive systems;
 For parts of large systems (e.g. the user interface);
 For short-lifetime systems.
Component-based software engineering
 Based on systematic reuse where systems are integrated from existing
components or COTS (Commercial-off-the-shelf) systems.
 Process stages
 Component analysis;
 Requirements modification;
 System design with reuse;
 Development and integration.
 This approach is becoming increasingly used as component standards have
emerged.
Reuse-oriented development

Requirements Component Requirements System design

specification analysis modification with reuse

Development System
and integration validation
Formal systems development
 Based on the transformation of a mathematical specification through
different representations to an executable program.
 Transformations are ‘correctness-preserving’ so it is straightforward to show
that the program conforms to its specification.
 Embodied in the ‘Clean room’ approach to software development

Requirements Formal Formal Integration and

definition specification transformation system testing
Formal systems development
 Problems
 Need for specialised skills and training to apply the technique
 Difficult to formally specify some aspects of the system such
as the user interface.
 Advantage
 The resulting software will have high quality
 Applicability
 Critical
systems especially those where a safety or security
case must be made before the system is put into operation
2.2. Process iteration

 System requirements ALWAYS evolve in the course of a project so process

iteration where earlier stages are reworked is always part of the process for
large systems.
 Iteration can be applied to any of the generic process models.
 Two (related) approaches
 Incremental delivery;
 Spiral development.
Incremental delivery
 Rather than deliver the system as a single delivery,
the development and delivery is broken down into
increments with each increment delivering part of the
required functionality.
 User requirements are prioritised and the highest
priority requirements are included in early
increments.
 Once the development of an increment is started, the
requirements are frozen though requirements for later
increments can continue to evolve.
Incremental development
Define outline Assign requirements Design system
requirements to increments architecture

Develop system Validate Integrate Validate

increment increment increment system
Final
system
System incomplete
Incremental development advantages

 Customer value can be delivered with each increment so system functionality

is available earlier.
 Early increments act as a prototype to help elicit requirements for later
increments.
 Lower risk of overall project failure.
 The highest priority system services tend to receive the most testing.
Spiral development

 Process is represented as a spiral rather than as a sequence of activities with

backtracking.
 Each loop in the spiral represents a phase in the process.
 No fixed phases such as specification or design - loops in the spiral are chosen
depending on what is required.
 Risks are explicitly assessed and resolved throughout the process.
Spiral model sectors

 Objective setting
 Specific objectives for the phase are identified.
 Risk assessment and reduction
 Risks are assessed and activities put in place to reduce the key
risks.
 Development and validation
 A development model for the system is chosen which can be any of
the generic models.
 Planning
 The project is reviewed and the next phase of the spiral is planned.
Spiral model of the software process

Determine objecti v es,

Evalua te alternatives
alternativ es and
identify , r esolv e risks
constr aints Risk
anal ysis

Risk
anal ysis

Risk
Oper a-
anal ysis
Pr ototype 3 tional
Pr ototype 2 pr oto ype
Risk
REVIEW anal ysis Pr oto-
type 1
Requir ements plan Sim ula tions , models , benchmarks
Life-cy cle plan Concept of
Oper a tion S/W
requir ements Product
design Detailed
Requir ement design
Dev elopment
plan v alida tion Code
Unit test
Integ ra tion Design
V&V Integ ra tion
and test plan
Plan ne xt phase test
Acceptance
Service test De velop , verify
ne xt-le vel pr oduct
2.3. Process activities

 Software specification
 Software design and implementation
 Software validation
 Software evolution
Software specification

 The process of establishing what services are required and the constraints on
the system’s operation and development.
 Requirements engineering process
 Feasibility study;
 Requirements elicitation and analysis;
 Requirements specification;
 Requirements validation.
The requirements engineering process

Feasibility Requirements
elicitation and
stud y
anal ysis
Requirements
specification
Feasibility Requirements
repor t validation

System
models
User and system
requirements

Requirements
document
Software design and implementation

 The process of converting the system specification into an executable system.

 Software design
 Design a software structure that realises the specification;
 Implementation
 Translate this structure into an executable program;
 The activities of design and implementation are closely related and may be
inter-leaved.
Design process activities

 Architectural design
 Abstract specification
 Interface design
 Component design
 Data structure design
 Algorithm design
The software design process

Requirements
specification

Design activities

Data
Architectural Abstract Interface Component Algorithm
structure
design specification design design design
design

Data
System Software Interface Component Algorithm
structure
architecture specification specification specification specification
specification

Design pro ducts

Structured methods

 Systematic approaches to developing a software design.

 The design is usually documented as a set of graphical models.
 Possible models
 Object model;
 Sequence model;
 State transition model;
 Structural model;
 Data-flow model.
Programming and debugging

 Translating a design into a program and removing errors from that program.
 Programming is a personal activity - there is no generic programming process.
 Programmers carry out some program testing to discover faults in the program
and remove these faults in the debugging process.
The debugging process

Locate Design Repair Re-test

error error repair error program
Software validation

 Verification and validation (V & V) is intended to show that a system conforms

to its specification and meets the requirements of the system customer.
 Involves checking and review processes and system testing.
 System testing involves executing the system with test cases that are derived
from the specification of the real data to be processed by the system.
The testing process

Component System Acceptance

testing testing testing
Testing stages
 Component or unit testing
 Unit testing: Individual components are tested independently;
 Module testing: Related components may be functions or objects or
coherent groupings of these entities are tested.
 Sub system testing
 Modules are integrated into subsystems and tested. The focus here should
be on interface testing.
 System testing
 Testing of the system as a whole. Testing of emergent properties is
particularly important.
 Acceptance testing (alpha testing)
 Testing with customer data to check that the system meets the customer’s
needs.
Testing phases

Requirements System System Detailed

specification specification design design

System Sub-system Module and

Acceptance
integration integ ration unit code
test plan
test plan test plan and test

Acceptance System Sub-system

Service
test integ ration test integ ration test
Software evolution

 Software is inherently flexible and can change.

 As requirements change through changing business circumstances, the
software that supports the business must also evolve and change.
 Although there has been a distinction between development and evolution
(maintenance) this is increasingly irrelevant as fewer and fewer systems are
completely new.
System evolution

Define system Assess existing Propose system Modify

requirements systems changes systems

Existing New
systems system
 4.5. Computer-aided software engineering

 Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) is software to

support software development and evolution processes.
 Activity automation
 Graphical editors for system model development;
 Data dictionary to manage design entities;
 Graphical UI builder for user interface construction;
 Debuggers to support program fault finding;
 Automated translators to generate new versions of a program.
Case technology

 Case technology has led to significant improvements in the software process.

However, these are not the order of magnitude improvements that were once
predicted
 Software engineering requires creative thought - this is not readily automated;
 Software engineering is a team activity and, for large projects, much time is spent
in team interactions. CASE technology does not support these much.
CASE classification

 Classification helps us understand the different types of CASE tools

and their support for process activities.
 Functional perspective
 Tools are classified according to their specific function.
 Process perspective
 Tools are classified according to process activities that are supported.
 Integration perspective
 Tools are classified according to their organisation into integrated
units.
Functional tool classification

Tool type Examples

Planning tools PERT tools, estimation tools, spreadsheets
Editing tools Text editors, diagram editors, word processors
Change management tools Requirements traceability tools, change control systems
Configuration management tools Version management systems, system building tools
Prototyping tools Very high-level languages, user interface generators
Method-support tools Design editors, data dictionaries, code generators
Language-processing tools Compilers, interpreters
Program analysis tools Cross reference generators, static analysers, dynamic analysers
Testing tools Test data generators, file comparators
Debugging tools Interactive debugging systems
Documentation tools Page layout programs, image editors
Re-engineering tools Cross-reference systems, program re-structuring systems
Process Activity-based tool classification
Re-eng ineering tools

Testing tools

Debugg ing tools

Prog ram analysis tools

Language-processing
tools

Method suppor t tools

Prototyping tools

Configuration
management tools

Change management tools

Documentation tools

Editing tools

Planning tools

Specification Design Implementation Verification

and
Validation
CASE integration

 Tools
 Support individual process tasks such as design consistency checking, text editing,
etc.
 Workbenches
 Support a process phase such as specification or design, Normally include a number
of integrated tools.
 Environments
 Support all or a substantial part of an entire software process. Normally include
several integrated workbenches.
Tools, workbenches, environments

CASE
technolo g y

Tools Workbenches Environments

File Integrated Process-centr ed

Editors Compilers
compar ators en vironments en vironments

Analysis and
Pro gramming Testing
design

Multi-method Single-method General-purpose Language-specific

workbenches workbenches workbenches workbenches
Key points

 Software processes are the activities involved in producing and

evolving a software system.
 Software process models are abstract representations of these
processes.
 General activities are specification, design and implementation,
validation and evolution.
 Generic process models describe the organisation of software
processes. Examples include the waterfall model, evolutionary
development and component-based software engineering etc.
 Iterative process models describe the software process as a cycle
of activities.
Key points

 Requirements engineering is the process of developing a software

specification.
 Design and implementation processes transform the specification
to an executable program.
 Validation involves checking that the system meets to its
specification and user needs.
 Evolution is concerned with modifying the system after it is in use.
 The Rational Unified Process is a generic process model that
separates activities from phases.
 CASE technology supports software process activities.