DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Transformation
1. 1928 Frederick Griffith
experimented with a
pneumonia causing
bacteria in mice.
2. His experimented did not
support early theories of
protein as genetic material
because proteins become
denatured in heat.
3. Harmless bacteria
transformed into pathogens.
4. Oswald Avery discovered
DNA was transforming
agent.
Other
evidence
1. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase discovered
the ability of macrophages to inject DNA into
a bacterial cell.
2. The amount of DNA before and after: haploid
vs. diploid.
3. Chargaff’s rule: DNA composition is species
specific.
1. Adenine nucleotides = thymine nucleotides
2. Guanine nucleotides = cytosine nucleotides
DNA Structure
1. Watson and Francis Crick
credited with the discovery
of DNA as a double helix.
2. Width 2nm and bases 0.34
apart.
3. There are 10 bases pairs
stacked in each turn of the
helix with the hydrophobic
ones facing the interior.
4. Nitrogenous bases:
1) Purines: adenine and
guanine
2) Pyrimidines: thymine and
cytosine
5. The backbone is made of
alternating sugars
(deoxyribose) and
phosphate groups.
6. The bases are held
together with hydrogen
bonds.
DNA Replication
1. Replication is the process by which DNA makes a
copy of itself.
2. It is necessary to provide each new cell with a
complete and exact copy of DNA at the end of
mitosis.
3. This process takes about 6 hours in a human cell.
4. Steps:
1) DNA molecule unzips at one end, replication fork,
separating the base pairs.
2) As the chain comes apart, each side of the original strand
becomes part of a DNA strand.
3) New nucleotides floating in the cell move into position to pair
with the other bases.
4) As new bases come together with older bases the structure
reforms.
5) The two new molecules of DNA have exactly the same base
pair order of the old structure.
5. The strands of DNA run
antiparallel → sugar-
phosphate backbones run
in opposite directions.
6. In 5/ end the phosphate is
attached to carbon of
deoxyribose.
7. In the 3/ end the phosphate
is attached to the carbon of
adjacent base.
8. When replicated the order
is reversed; original 5/-3/,
new strand 3/-5/.
Proteins & their function
DNA DNA Primase Helicase Single
Polymerase strand
Ligase binding
proteins
Moves down Joins Makes the Untwist the Holds unpaired
strand adding fragments into primer, or helix at fork. DNA strands
complimentary a single strand. existing DNA straight until
bases. strand. complimentary
strand
synthesized.
Proofreading and Repair
1. Errors in DNA base pairing occur 1 in 10,000
base pairs.
2. In bacteria, DNA polymerase backs up and
fixes the problem.
3. In eukaryotic cells it is unknown if DNA
polymerase or another enzyme proofreads
the strand.
4. Factors leading to DNA errors: UV light, x-
rays, reactive chemicals, or radioactive
emissions.
DNA & RNA
1. DNA contains genetic information in a code.
2. The code is an arrangement of bases.
3. The code is read 3 bases at a time and these
3 bases are called codons.
4. Codons cause specific proteins to be made.
5. When a cell needs a protein two things will
happen:
1. Transcription: where DNA makes RNA
2. Translation: where the RNA made from DNA
works to make the protein.
DNA RNA
1. Double strand 1. Single Strand
2. Inside the nucleus only. 2. Made in nucleus, but
3. Sugar = deoxyribose then leaves.
4. Adenine, thymine, 3. Sugar = ribose
guanine, cytosine 4. Adenine, uracil,
5. 1 type guanine, cytosine
6. AGCTCAGTGCAC 5. 3 types: each has a
role in making a
protein.
6. UCGAGUCACGUG
Each color represents a different codon on DNA and
anticodon on RNA.
Types of RNA & Function
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): functions as
the genetic message between DNA and
the protein.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): transfers the
amino acid from the cytoplasm to the
ribosome.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): binding site for
mRNA.
Transcription
1. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA strand and binds
to promoter sites on DNA. (Initiation)
2. Transcription factors aid in the binding process to
promoter sites.
3. Elongation: mRNA strand built from DNA and pull
away upon completion at 3/ end.
4. Termination: elongation occurs until a termination site
is reached at which point RNA polymerase stops
adding bases.
5. mRNA leaves the nucleus.
Translation
1. Transfer RNA is made in the nucleus from DNA
template and then enters cytoplasm.
2. t-RNA molecules carry anticodons that
complement m-RNA codons.
3. As an m-RNA molecule slides through a
ribosome, t-RNA adds the correct amino acid to
the protein chain.
4. Ribosomal enzymes connect the amino acids.
5. t-RNA molecules can be used repeatedly.
6. There are 45 different t-RNAs. Some code for
more than one amino acid.
7. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase matches the correct
amino acid to t-RNA
8. The third base on the anticodon is relaxed
in base pairing rules.
1. Ribosome has two sites: 2. Translation has three parts: initiation, \
1. P-site: holds t-RNA carrying elongation, and termination.
growing protein chain. [Link]: 16.13, 16.14, 16.15
2. A-site: holds t-RNA carrying
next amino acid to be added
to chain.
RNA Processing
1. Alterations to ends of mRNA.
1. 5/ capped off with modified form of guanine
which protects RNA from hydrolytic
enzymes and serves as an attachment site
for small ribosome.
2. 3/ end has a poly-A tail (150-200 adenine
nucleotides) preventing degradation and
facilitating export to cytoplasm.
2. RNA Splicing
1. Definition: a cut and paste job removing a large
portion of molecule made during transcription.
2. Average length of nucleotide being transcribed is
about 8000 nucleotides, but only about 1200 needed
to make proteins.
3. There are long non-coding segments ( introns)
between coded segments (exons).
4. Introns are removed before mRNA leaves the
nucleus.
5. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) plays a functional role in
splicing.
6. Ribozymes are RNA molecules functioning as
enzymes to aid in splicing.
