Lecture 1
RETARDED POTENTIAL
RETARDED POTENTIAL
• The vector electric potential expression represents the
superposition of potentials due to various current
elements (I dl), at distant point P ( at a distance of r ).
• The effect reaching a distant point P from a given element
at an instant t, due to a current value which is followed at
an earlier time.
• This time, of course, depends on the distance traveled
from dl to P .
• Hence, retardation time must be taken into account.
Retarded Potentials
Consider a charge
distribution as shown
The electric potential
V (R) at a point in
space specified by the
position vector R is
1 v R i given by
V R
4 ' R'
d '
Ri = position vector of an elemental volume
' = elemental volume
v = charge density inside the volume 3
R' R R i = distance between the volume and the point
If the charge density is
time – varying, the
obvious solution is
1 v R i , t
V R ,t
4 ' R'
d '
Problem: Does not account for reaction time
Any change in the charge distribution will require a finite amount of
time to change the potential
R'
Delay Time t'
up
1 v R i , t t '
Retarded Scalar Potential V R ,t
4 ' R'
d '
Retarded Vector Potential
A R ,t
J R i , t t ' d '
4 ' R'
Valid under both static and dynamic conditions
Time – Harmonic Potentials
In a linear system, the parameters all have the same functional dependence on time
Consider a sinusoidal time – varying charge distribution
v
R i ,t Re v R i e
jt
v R i = phasor representation of v R i ,t
1 v R i e j k R '
V R
4 ' R'
d ' V
A R
J R i e j k R'
k
4 ' R'
d '
up
• Block diagram for computing fields radiated by electric and magnetic sources.
• Path 1, relates the E and H fields to J and M by integral relations.
• Path 2, relates the A and F potentials to J and M by integral relations.
• The E and H are then determined simply by differentiating A and F.
LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS
Basic antenna elements,
Alternating current element (hertzian dipole or Oscillating dipole),
Linear antenna in which current along its length is assumed to be constant.
Short dipole,
Linear antenna having length less then λ/4 and current distribution is assumed to be
triangular.
Half wave dipole,
Linear antenna having length of λ/2 and current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal.
Usually center fed.
Quarter wave monopole,
Linear antenna having length of λ/4 and current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal.
Fed at one end W. R. T. earth.
Radiated fields of Infinitesimal Dipole
• An infinitesimal linear wire (l<<λ) is positioned symmetrically at the origin of the coordinate
system and oriented along the z axis, as shown in Figure.
• The spatial variation of the current is assumed to be constant and given by
R Range
Zenith angle
Azimuth angle
• Since the source only carries an electric current Ie; Im and the potential function F
are zero.
• To find A we write
• where (x, y, z ) represent the observation point coordinates, (x', y', z' ) represent
the coordinates of the source, R is the distance from any point on the source to the
observation point, and path C is along the length of the source.
• Therefore
• The next step of the procedure is to find HA and then EA using J = 0.
• To do this, it is often much simpler to transform from rectangular to spherical
components in spherical coordinates to find H and E.
• The transformation between rectangular and spherical components is given, in
matrix form, by
• For this problem, Ax = Ay = 0, so
• We can find the magnetic field using the expression
1
H A
• On simplification, we get
• On calculation, we get
• We can find the electric fields using the expression
1
E H
j
• On calculation, we get
• The E- and H-field components are valid everywhere, except on the
source itself,
Power Density and Radiation Resistance
• The Poynting vector is formed in terms of the E- and H-fields radiated by the antenna.
• By integrating the Poynting vector over a closed surface (usually a sphere of constant
radius), the total power radiated by the source is found.
• The real part of it is related to the input resistance.
• For the infinitesimal dipole, the complex Poynting vector can be written as
• whose radial Wr and transverse Wθ components are given, respectively, by
• And
• The complex power moving in the radial direction is obtained
by integrating over a closed sphere of radius r.
• Thus it can be written as
• Which reduces to
• It gives the real and imaginary power that is moving outwardly, which can also be
written as
• Where
• Then
• And
• For large values of r (1/kr<<1 or r>>λ), the reactive power
diminishes and vanishes when kr =∞.
Radiation Resistance
• Since the antenna radiates its real power through the radiation resistance, for the infinitesimal
dipole it is found by equating Prad to
• where Rr is the radiation resistance.
• Then,
• for a free-space medium (η = 120π).
• For a wire antenna to be classified as an infinitesimal dipole, its overall length must be very
small (usually l ≤ λ/50).
• Terms that fall off as 1/r3 or 1/r2 are small at any
significant distance from an antenna
• Remaining “radiation” terms fall off only as 1/r and thus
transmit energy for long distances
• Also E and H fields are in phase for such terms
• When one is in the “near field” the 1/r3 or 1/r2 terms are
also important
• Near-Field (kr << 1) Region
• For kr << 1 or r << λ/2π, they
can be reduced in much simpler
form and can be approximated by
• The E-field components, Er and
Eθ , are in time-phase but they are
in time-phase quadrature with the
H-field component Hφ ; therefore
there is no time-average power
flow associated with them.
• Hence they are reffered to as
quasistationary fields.
Intermediate-Field (kr > 1) Region
• As the values of kr begin to increase and
become greater than unity, the terms that
were dominant for kr << 1 become smaller
and eventually vanish.
• For moderate values of kr the E-field
components lose their in-phase condition
and approach time-phase quadrature.
• The field expressions can be approximated
again, but in a different form.
• Thus we can write for kr > 1
• Far-Field (kr >> 1) Region
• In a region where kr >> 1, the fields can be simplified and approximated by
• The ratio of Eθ to Hφ is equal to
• where
• The E- and H-field components are perpendicular to each other,
transverse to the radial direction of propagation, and the r
variations are separable from those of θ and φ.
• The shape of the pattern is not a function of the radial distance
r, and the fields form a Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM)
wave whose wave impedance is equal to the intrinsic
impedance of the medium.
• This relationship is applicable in the far-field region of all
antennas of finite dimensions.
