Network

Fundamentals

Chapter 9:
Ethernet

ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 1
Objectives
 Identify the basic characteristics of network media
used in Ethernet.
 Describe the physical and data link features of
Ethernet.
 Describe the function and characteristics of the media
access control method used by Ethernet protocol.
 Explain the importance of Layer 2 addressing used for
data transmission
 Compare and contrast the application and benefits of
using Ethernet switches as apposed to hubs in a LAN
 Explain the ARP process.
2
Ethernet Background…
 Ethernet is the predominant LAN technology in
use today.
 Ethernet operates in the lower two layers of the OSI
model: the MAC sublayer of the Data Link layer and
the Physical layer.
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) standard for Ethernet is 802.3.
–The IEEE 802.2 standard describes the LLC sublayer
functions
–The IEEE 802.3 standard describes the MAC sublayer
and the Physical layer functions.
3
More on Ethernet…
 Most of the traffic on the Internet originates and ends with
Ethernet connections
 The success of Ethernet is due to the following factors:
–Simplicity and ease of maintenance
–Ability to incorporate new technologies
–Reliability
–Low cost of installation and upgrade

 The introduction of Gigabit Ethernet has extended the

original LAN technology to distances that make Ethernet a
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and WAN standard
 Today's Ethernet networks use primarily UTP copper cables
and optical fiber to interconnect network devices via
intermediary devices such as hubs and switches. 4
Ethernet Layer 1 & Layer 2

5
The Ethernet Logical Link Control Sublayer
 LLC is implemented in software, and its implementation is independent
of the physical equipment.

6
The Ethernet Media Access Control Sublayer
 Media Access Control is implemented by hardware, typically in the
computer Network Interface Card (NIC)

7
Early Ethernet Media and Topology

 The early
versions of
Ethernet
incorporated the
media access
method of Thicknet (500 m) and Thinnet (185 m)
CSMA/CD

 Early versions of
Ethernet used
coaxial cable and
were known as
Thicknet,
(10BASE5) and
Thinnet
(10BASE2)

Legacy Ethernet 10Base-T (100 m) 8

MAC in Ethernet

9
Ethernet Hubs
 Hubs concentrate connections

 Hubs take a group of nodes and

allow the network to see them as
a single unit
 When a frame arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other
ports so that all the segments
on the LAN receive the frame
 Using hubs increased network
reliability by allowing any single
cable to fail without disrupting
the entire network
 However, repeating the frame to
all other ports did not solve the
issue of collisions
10
Migration From Hubs to Ethernet Switches
 Switches can control the
flow of data by isolating
each port and sending a
frame only to its proper
destination (if the
destination is known),
rather than send every
frame to every device.
 Switches manage
collisions on Ethernet-
based networks
 Corresponded with the
development of
100BASE-TX
 Introduction of Full
Duplex capabilities led to
development of 1 Gig
Ethernet
11
 The Ethernet Frame
 The Ethernet frame structure adds headers and trailers around the Layer
3 PDU to encapsulate the message being sent.
 Each section of the frame is called a field
 Two styles of Ethernet framing:

Revised

Original

12
Ethernet Frame Size
 The original Ethernet standard…
–Minimum frame size 64 bytes
–Maximum as 1518 bytes

 Includes all bytes from the Destination MAC Address

field through the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field
–Preamble and Start Frame Delimiter fields are not included

 The IEEE 802.3ac standard, released in 1998, extended

the maximum allowable frame size to 1522 bytes
–Frame size was increased to accommodate a technology
called Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN)

13
The Ethernet MAC Address
 IEEE requires NIC vendors to follow two rules:
–All MAC addresses assigned to a NIC or other Ethernet device must use that
vendor's assigned OUI as the first 3 bytes.
–All MAC addresses with the same OUI must be assigned a unique value
(serial number) in the last 3 bytes.
 Also referred to as a BIA (Burned-in-Address), Hardware Address,
Physical Address, Adapter Address, Ethernet Address

The MAC Address

is copied into RAM
when the device is
booted

14
The MAC Address & Network Devices
 All devices connected to an Ethernet LAN have MAC-addressed
interfaces
 MAC addresses are assigned to workstations, servers, printers,
switches, and routers - any device that must originate and/or receive
data on the network.
 MAC addresses have different hexadecimal formats such as 00-05-9A-
3C-78-00, 00:05:9A:3C:78:00, or 0005.9A3C.7800
 When a source device sends data through an Ethernet network, it must
have a destination MAC address in the frame header.
 When a device receives a frame, it checks the destination MAC address
against its physical address
 If there is no match, the device discards the frame

 If there is a match, the NIC passes the frame up the OSI layers, where the
decapsulation process take place.
15
The Hexadecimal Numbering System
 Hexadecimal ("Hex") is a convenient way to represent binary
values
–Decimal is a base ten numbering system (10 symbols)
–Binary is base two (2 symbols)
–Hexadecimal is a base sixteen system (16 symbols)

 Hexadecimal numbering system uses 16 symbols:

10 11 12 13 14 15
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ,7, 8, 9 and A, B, C, D, E, F
 0x precedes number to indicate hex
hex 5D may be written as 0x5D
hex 10 may be written as 0x10
 All possible combinations of 4 binary digits can be converted
to only 1 hex symbol (4 bits = 1 hex digit = a nibble) 16
Concerting Binary to Hexadecimal
1. Take the 8-bit binary number and split it in half
2. Write the first 4 binary place values above each set of four binary digits
3. Convert the four bits to decimal (this number will equal 15 or less)
4. Express this decimal number as its equivalent hex digit

Example: Convert Binary 10011101 into Hex

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
=8+1 =8+4+1
= 9 Decimal = 13 Decimal
= 9 Hex = D Hex
Answer = 9D Hexadecimal or 0x9D 17
Hexadecimal Numbering and Addressing

18
CONVERTING HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL
 Ex) Convert Hexadecimal 2AE to Decimal

(163) (162) (161) (160)

4096 256 16 1
2 A E

(2x256) + (Ax16) + (Ex1) =

(2x256) + (10x16) + (14x1) =

512 + 160 + 14 = 686 Decimal

19
Different Layers of Addressing

20
Viewing the MAC Address

OUI (Organizational Unique Identifier)

Serial Number
21
A Unicast Message

22
A Broadcast Message

23
A Multicast Message

24
Ethernet Timing

Latency refers to the time it takes for a signal to

travel from source to destination

25
 How CSMA/CD Works…
 In the CSMA/CD access method, all network devices that have messages
to send must listen before transmitting.
 If a device detects a signal from another device, it will wait for a specified
amount of time before attempting to transmit.
 When there is no traffic detected, a device will transmit its message. While
this transmission is occurring, the device continues to listen for traffic or
collisions on the LAN. After the message is sent, the device returns to its
default listening mode.
 If another device tries to send at the same time it results in a collision (the
signals mix and the message is destroyed)
 Once the collision is detected by the transmitting devices, they send out a
jamming signal
 The jamming signal causes devices to invoke a backoff algorithm (all
devices to stop transmitting for a random amount of time)
 After the delay has expired on a device, the device goes back into the
"listening before transmit" mode.
 NOTE: Nodes involved in a collision DO NOT have priority to
retransmit. 26
More on The Jam Signal…
 As soon as a collision is detected, the sending devices
transmit a 32-bit "jam" signal that will enforce the
collision (ensures all devices in the LAN detect the
collision)

 The most commonly observed data pattern for a jam

signal is a repeating 1, 0, 1, 0 pattern

 The corrupted, partially transmitted messages are often

referred to as collision fragments or runts
– they are normally less than 64 octets in length and therefore
fail both the minimum length and the FCS tests, making
them easy to identify.
27
The Collision Domain
 Hubs and repeaters are intermediary devices that extend the
distance that Ethernet cables can reach
 Hubs and repeaters operate at the Physical layer, dealing only
with the signals on the media
–collisions can occur between the devices they connect and
within the hubs themselves.
 Connected devices that access a common media via a hub or
series of directly connected hubs make up what is known as a
collision domain.
–A collision domain is also referred to as a network segment
 Hubs and repeaters therefore have the effect of increasing the
size of the collision domain.
 A bigger collision domain may lead to an increased number of
collisions which reduces the network's efficiency and effectiveness
28
Legacy Ethernet – Using Hubs

29
The Extended Star Topology & Collision Domains

30
 Switched Ethernet Environment
•In a switched network, traffic is filtered based on the MAC address.
•Switches create smaller collision domains

31
 Ethernet Slot and Bit Times
 Bit Time – the
time it takes for
the bit to be
placed and
sensed on the
media

 Slot Time – twice

the time it takes
for a pulse to
travel the length
of the theoretical
distance between
two nodes on a
network (only
relevant in half-
duplex)

 These timing
considerations
are important in
minimizing the
risk of collisions… 32
Interframe Spacing
 Ethernet requires a minimum spacing between two non-colliding frames
–gives the media time to stabilize after the transmission of the previous frame
–time for the devices to process the frame

33
The Ethernet Physical Layer

10Base-T

100Base-TX

100Base-FX

34
 10Base-T Ethernet
 10 Mbps Ethernet is
considered to be Classic or
Legacy Ethernet
 Physical star topology
 Manchester-encoding
 Uses two pairs of a four-pair
UTP cable (Cat 3 or later)
 Max cable distance 100 m
 Uses an 8-pin RJ-45
connector
 The pair connected to pins 1
and 2 are used for
transmitting
 The pair connected to pins 3
and 6 are used for receiving
 The 10BASE-T links
connected to a switch can
support either half-duplex
or full-duplex operation. 35
 100 Mbps Ethernet
 Known as Fast Ethernet,
can be implemented
using twisted-pair copper
wire or fiber media.

 100BASE-TX uses Cat5

or later UTP

–uses the same two

pairs and pinouts of UTP
as 10BASE-T

–Uses 4B/5B encoding

–100 m max cable length

 100BASE-FX uses fiber-

optic cable
36
1000 Mbps - Gigabit Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet has specifications for UTP copper, single-mode
fiber, and multimode fiber
 Gigabit Ethernet over copper wire (1000BASE-T Ethernet)
provides full-duplex transmission using all four pairs in
Category 5 or later UTP cable
–Enables an increase from 100 Mbps per wire pair to 125 Mbps per
wire pair
–125 x 4 = 500 Mbps for the four pairs
–Each wire pair signals in full duplex, doubling the 500 Mbps to 1000
Mbps
–100 max cable length
–1000BASE-T uses 4D-PAM5 line encoding
 The fiber versions of Gigabit Ethernet - 1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX
- offer the following advantages over UTP: noise immunity, small physical
size, and increased unrepeated distances and bandwidth. 37
10GbE and Faster…
 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE) has evolved for use not only in
LANs, but also for use in WANs and MANs.

 10Gbps compared to other varieties of Ethernet:

–Frame format is the same, allowing interoperability between
all varieties of legacy, fast, gigabit, and 10 gigabit Ethernet, with
no reframing or protocol conversions necessary.

–Bit time is now 0.1 ns

–Because only full-duplex fiber connections are used, there

is no media contention and CSMA/CD is not necessary.

 10-Gigabit Ethernet Alliance are working on 40-, 100-, or

even 160-Gbps standards.
38
Switches and Selective Forwarding
 Switches only forward frames to the port to which the
destination node is attached
 Any node operating in full-duplex mode can transmit anytime it has
a frame, without regard to the availability of the receiving node
 If the destination port is busy, the LAN switch will buffer the
incoming frame and then forward it to the proper port when that
port is idle (known as store and forward)
–With store and forward switching, the switch receives the entire
frame, checks the FSC for errors, and forwards the frame to the
appropriate port for the destination node

 Because the nodes do not have to wait for the media to be idle,
the nodes can send and receive at full media speed without losses
due to collisions or the overhead associated with managing
collisions.
39
The MAC Table
 Frame forwarding is based on the Destination MAC
 The switch maintains a table, called a MAC table that
matches a destination MAC address with the port used to
connect to a node.
 For each incoming frame, the destination MAC address in
the frame header is compared to the list of addresses in the
MAC table
–If a match is found, the port number in the table that is paired
with the MAC address is used as the exit port for the frame
–If no match is found, the frame is flooded out all ports

 The MAC table can be referred to by many different names

including:
–switch table
–bridge table 40
How Frame Forward Works…

41
The Five Base Operations of LAN Switches
 Learning-The MAC table must be populated with MAC addresses and
their corresponding ports. As each frame enters the switch, the switch
examines the source MAC address. If no entry exists for that MAC
address, the switch creates a new entry
 Aging -The entries in the MAC table acquired by the Learning process
are time stamped. Old entries are aged out of the MAC table after a
certain amount of time.
 Flooding - If the switch does not know to which port to send a frame
because the destination MAC address is not in the MAC table, the switch
sends the frame to all ports except the port on which the frame arrived.
Flooding is also used for frames sent to the broadcast MAC address.
 Selective Forwarding - Selective forwarding is the process of examining
a frame's destination MAC address and forwarding it out the appropriate
port. This is the central function of the switch.
 Filtering - In some cases, a frame is not forwarded. This process is called
frame filtering. A switch will drop a corrupt frame if a frame fails a CRC
check. A switch also has security settings for blocking frames to and/or
from selective MAC addresses or specific ports.
42
The ARP Table
 For a frame to be placed on the LAN media, it must have a
destination MAC address.

 When a packet is sent to the Data Link layer to be encapsulated into a

frame, the node refers to a table in its memory to find the Data Link layer
address that is associated (or mapped) to the destination IPv4 address.

 This table is called the ARP table or the ARP cache (ARP table is
stored in the RAM of the device)

 Each entry, or row, of the ARP table has a pair of values: an IP

Address and a corresponding MAC address

 The ARP table is maintained dynamically

 There are two ways that a device can gather MAC addresses
–monitor the traffic that occurs on the local network segment
–broadcast an ARP request
43
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 ARP maps IP addresses to MAC Addresses

44
ARP – Destinations Outside the Local Network

45
 THE END

Network
Fundamentals

Chapter 9:
Ethernet

ITE PC v4.0
Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 46