Simple Apprehension
Objectives
To know the basic functions of logic
To discuss concepts, simple apprehension and
terms
To explain the classification of terms
To explain the properties of terms
To know the rule of good definition
What is Language?
Basic function of Language
HEAD COGNITIVE
HEART AFFECTIVE
GUTS ACTIVE
Irving Copi lists three basic functions of languages. These are
informative, expressive and directive which are based on
the three integral parts of man: head, heart and guts.
Basic Functions of Language
1) INFORMATIVE
This is the most common function of
language wherein we inform about
things we know and ask about things
we do not know yet.
When a person asks for your name
(he wants to be informed) and you tell
him: “I am Peter”, then what you used
is informative discourse.
In Logic, we see this function at work
in propositions and arguments, where
something is either denied or affirmed.
Basic Functions of Language
2) EXPRESSIVE
This kind of discourse is best illustrated in
poetry where emotions and attitudes are
expressed beautifully.
This function is not only seen in poetry.
Common exclamations like “Oh, no!, right!,
Look out!” and others are expressions of
different moods and are mere expressions of
feelings and emotions.
Basic Function of Language
3) Directive
This function of language is most easily seen in
commands or request that which lets go or
prevents an action to be done.
Examples:
• Kindly arrange all the requirements before
leaving.
• Do not mess me now.
One can say that this is either true or
false. Whether the command or request is
obeyed or not is irrelevant to its truth-value,
which is
non-existent in the first place.
Exercise 1
What functions of language are seen in the following
passages? Give a short explanation for your answer.
_______ 1. Many countries expressed concern over the
outbreak of bird flu.
_______ 2. Oh, my God! Twin Towers!
_______ 3. Get me a piece of paper on which I can write your
name on.
_______ 4. “To be or not to be! That is the question!”
_______ 5. Cartoon characters are like humans.
_______ 6. Let us do it.
_______ 7. Who among you is not afraid of AIDS?
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
What is a concept?
A concept is a representation of an object by the
intellect through which man comprehends a thing.
It is also considered a mental image of an object
or an idea about something.
Ideas are formed by simple apprehension which
may be in the form of the following operations.
Simple Apprehension
Attention
Abstraction
Reflection
Comparison
Analysis
Synthesis
Simple Apprehension
Attention
It is the mental act by which the mind
fixes its consideration upon one particular
object after having sensed it.
o Abstraction
It is a mental act by which the mind
studies the physical characteristics or the
individualizing notes of the particular
object with regard to its color, size, style,
material, then goes on to think of the
purpose of the object.
Simple Apprehension
Reflection/Reflex Mental Activity
It is a mental act of becoming aware of
itself, of its act or of its state so as to look at
these things objectively.
Comparison
It is a mental act by which the mind notices
the likeness and differences in the objects
having the same essence or belonging to
the same class.
Simple Apprehension
Analysis
It is a mental act by which the mind gives
direct attention to the essentials or the
basic similarities of an idea.
Ex. Man is a living organism who is sentient
and rational.
Synthesis
It is an act by which the mind puts
together two or more ideas to form a
single idea.
Types of Concepts
Intention
Subject and Form
Substance
Accident
Existence or Possession
Types of Concepts
Based on Intention
A concept is an act of the mind as a representative of
a thing.
FIRST INTENTION CONCEPT
This a concept by which we understand what a thing
is according to what it is in reality, regardless of what
we think about it.
Ex. Man is a social being.
Man is an embodied spirit.
Types of Concepts
Based on Subject and Form
Form is that which makes an object exist as it is. It is the
perfection or the attribute of the subject.
Subject is that which has or which is looked upon as
having a perfection or attribute embodied in itself.
Example:
Form – Beauty makes a thing beautiful.
Animality is the perfection that
makes an animal a real animal.
Subject – White having white’ness
Based on Subject and Form
Concrete Concept
It is a concept that expresses a form and a subject.
Example: body, spirit, woman
Abstract Concept
It is a concept which expresses form only.
Example: kindness, holiness, beauty, simplicity
Types of Concepts
Based on Substance and Accident
Substance is that which exists in itself without requiring
another being as subject of its inherence.
Example: Man, tree, and angel
Accident is that which cannot exist in itself but only as a
perfection or modification of the subject.
Example: White, honest, and beautiful
Types of Concepts
Based on Existence and Possession
Positive Concept – it signifies the existence or possession of
something.
Ex. War, beautiful, happy love
Negative Concept – it signifies the non-existence or non-
possession of something.
Ex. Non-war, non-beautiful, unhappy, loveless
What is a term?
Term – is an external sign of a concept and the ultimate
structural element of a proposition. It is a
conventional tool of expressing an
idea.
As an Ultimate Element of a Proposition
Subject - it is that which is being spoken of in a
proposition.
Example: A woman is female
Predicate – it is that which speaks about the subject.
Example: All roses are flowers.
Classification of Terms
1)On the basis of meaning
2)On the basis of quality
3)On the basis of quantity
4)On the basis of incompatibility with
other terms
Classification of Terms
1) On the basis of meaning
A. Univocal Terms
These are terms with exactly the same meaning in at
least two occurrences.
Ex. Every monkey eats bananas.
Banana is a tropical fruit.
B. Equivocal Terms
These are terms that have completely different
meanings in at least two occurrences.
Ex. Pens are used for writing.
The pigs are in the pens.
Classification of Terms
C. Analogous Terms
These are terms that have partly the same and partly
different meanings in at least two occurrences.
Ex. Peter stands with one foot at the foot of the mountain.
Note: It is important to make clear at this point that the
inferior (the term to which the analogous term applies)
is called an analogue or analogate. It is classified into
the following.
Analogue or Analogate
Primary Analogues/Analogates
If the terms apply to them primarily and absolutely, these
are known as primary analogues/analogates.
Ex: The bright light has blinded the man.
The primary meaning of the word “light” is stimulus to
sight; hence, it is a primary analogue.
Secondary Analogues/Analogates
If the terms apply to them secondarily and relatively,
these are known as secondary analogues/analogates.
Ex: You are the light of my heart.
Here, “light” means the splendor of love that makes a
person happy.
Classification of Terms
2) On the basis of quality
A. Positive
When they express what is real, true or essential of a
thing such as life, health, courage.
When they signify or affirm the existence or presence
of desirable qualities such as beauty, honesty,
cooperation and persistence.
B. Negative
When they indicate the absence or lack of form,
ability or quality such as disorder, blindness, death,
awkward, dishonest and sickly.
Classification of Terms
3) On the basis of quantity
A. Singular Term – a term that stands for a single definite
individual or group.
A term is singular if it is a:
a) Proper noun (e.g., Raul, Manila, St. Alexius College)
b) Noun modified by a superlative pronoun ( highest honor,
biggest city)
c) Noun modified by demonstrative pronoun (this book,
those girls)
d) Collective noun (audience, orchestra, flock, army)
e) Noun preceded by the article (the man, the red car)
f) Personal pronoun (I, you, it, he, she, we, they and
others)
Classification of Terms
B) Particular Term – a term that stands for an indefinite
individual.
A term is particular if it is a:
a) Noun modified by an indefinite pronoun (many roses, some
men, not all heroes)
b) Noun modified by the use of numbers (eight sacks of rice,
twelve angry man)
c) Subject of a general proposition – a statement commonly
accepted most of the time but not all the times (Filipinos are
hospitable, Apples are expensive)
d) Noun preceded by the articles “a” or “an” (A yellow mango is
sweet)
Classification of Terms
C) Universal Term – a term that stands for every subject
signified.
A term is universal if it is a:
a) Noun modified by universal expressions such as every,
each, whatever, anybody, all and others. (all students, every
citizen)
b) Universal idea – statement of reality based on factual notion
(Man is a rational animal.)
c) Noun preceded by the articles “the”, “an” if it is conveys a
universal idea (A snake is dangerous. An alligator is an
amphibian.)
Classification of Terms
4) On the basis of incompatibility with other terms
A. Contradictory Terms
These terms are those wherein one affirms what the other denies.
One denies the connotation of the other.
Ex. Life-lifeless, thing-nothing
B. Contrary Terms
These terms are those that represent two extremes among
objects of a series belonging to the same class.
Ex. Hot-cold (temperature)
Happy-miserable (emotion)
black – white (color)
Properties of Terms
1) Comprehension – refers to the totality of the essential
notes, qualities, characteristics, or
attributes which the idea
implies.
ex. Sentient, rational, living, corporeal
2) Extension – refers to the totality of all objects which the
idea represents or to which the idea
extends its application.
ex. Man, plant, mineral, brute
Properties of Terms
Rules Governing Comprehension and Extension
1)As comprehension increase, extension decreases,
and vice- versa.
2)The extension of an idea can be increased or
diminished by retaining or without destroying the
idea.
3)The comprehension of an idea always remains as it
is, while the extension of the idea may change
continually.
Properties of Terms
The distinction between the comprehension and the
extension terms is further illustrated by the following series
of terms:
Decreasing comprehension: animal, men, Asian, Filipino,
Pedro
Decreasing extension: Pedro, Filipino, Asian, men, animal
Increasing comprehension: Pedro, Filipino, Asian, men,
animal
Increasing extension: animal, men, Asian, Filipino, Pedro
Table of Quantifiers
UNIVERSAL PARTICULAR SINGULAR
All, any, anything, anyone Some, something, All common nouns (flower,
Anybody, always someone, Somebody, table, man, etc.)
sometimes
Each, every, everything, Few, several, plenty, All collective nouns
Everybody, everyone most, several, majority (group, family, band, flock)
Almost all, almost every,
No, nothing, no one, Almost everything, almost All superlatives (best,
Nobody, never everyone, almost worst, excellent, etc)
everybody, very many,
Whatever, whoever, very few All demonstrative
whichever Practically all, practically pronouns (that, this,
everyone, not all, not those)
Articles like the, a, and an many, not every
(for universal idea) The use of article the (for
The use of numbers like specific object)
ten percent or 800 or 1 kilo
DEFINITION AND ITS LAWS
Nature of Definition
The term ‘definition’ was derived from a Latin
word definire which is translated to mean to assign
limits. Words are defined for the purpose of
knowing their meanings. Dictionary, Thesaurus and
encyclopedias are common sources of knowledge
in relation to the definition of terms.
What is definition?
According, it is defined as a statement which
explains the meaning of a term.
Ex. Man as an intelligent social being.
This definition naturally explains something about
the term being defined.
This term can be considered good because it
follows the laws of definition.
