SQUIDs
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VII sem E&C
Superconducting QUantum Interference
Devices
A brief history about SQUIDs
The first biomagnetic signal, the
magnetocardiogram (MCG), was detected in
1963 with an induction coil magnetometer
(Baule and McFee, 1963).
A remarkable increase in the sensitivity of
biomagnetic measurements was obtained with
the introduction of SQUID, working at the
temperature of liquid helium (-269 C) (Cohen,
1972)
Superconductivity
Phenomenon occurring in certain materials at very
low temperatures, characterized by exactly zero
electrical resistance and the exclusion of the interior
magnetic field
Type I
Type II
Figure 1
Cooper Pair
Electrons that are bound together at low
temperatures in a certain manner
An electron is repelled from other electrons due to
their similar charge, but it also attracts the positive
ions that make up the rigid lattice of the metal.
This attraction can distort the positively charged ion
lattice in such a way as to attract other electrons
(the electron-phonon interaction)
At long distances this attraction between electrons
due to the displaced ions can overcome the
electrons' repulsion due to their negative charge,
and cause them to pair-up.
The energy of the pairing interaction is quite weak, and thermal energy
can easily break the pairs up.
So only at low temperatures are a significant number of the electrons
in a metal in Cooper pairs.
Figure 2
Schematic representation of sxattering of electrons as they pass through vibrating
lattice
Figure 3
Figure 4
Meissner effect
Active exclusion of magnetic field from a
material in its superconducting state
Figure 5
If a small magnet is brought near a superconductor,
it will be repelled because induced supercurrent will
produce mirror images of each pole.
If a small permanent magnet is placed above a
superconductor, it can be levitated by this repulsive
force.
Figure 6
Josephson effect
Two superconductors separated by a thin insulating
layer can experience tunneling of Cooper pairs of
electrons through the junction. Under these
conditions, a current will flow through the junction
in the absence of an applied voltage
Magnetic flux quantum
Inverse of this , is the Josephson Constant
SQUID
The superconducting quantum interference
device (SQUID) consists of two
superconductors separated by thin insulating
layers to form two parallel
Josephson junctions.
If a constant biasing current is maintained in
the SQUID device, the measured voltage
oscillates with the changes in phase at the two
junctions, which depends upon the change in
the magnetic flux.
Figure 7
Types of SQUIDS
dc SQUID
rf ( radio frequency ) SQUID
Figure 8a – dc SQUID Figure 8b – rf SQUID
Figure 9
dc SQUID
Operates with a dc bias current, consists of two
Josephson junctions incorporated into a
superconducting loop.
The maximum dc supercurrent, known as the critical
current, and the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic
of the SQUID oscillate when the magnetic field
applied to the device is changed.
The oscillations are periodic in the magnetic flux Φ
threading the loop with a period of one flux quantum,
Φ0 = h/2e ≈ 2.07 × 10−15 weber
Thus, when the SQUID is biased with a constant
current, the voltage is periodic in the flux.
Working of DC squid
An external magnetic field H is applied to the loop.
A Josephson junction is incorporated into each of the two
arms of the dc SQUID. The Josephson junctions limit the
maximum supercurrent Ic that can flow across the ring to a
maximum value given by the sum of the critical currents of
the two junctions.
The magnetic flux enclosed inside the SQUID ring modulates
Ic periodically,
This modulation, caused by an interference of the
superconducting wave functions in the two SQUID arms,
forms the basis of the working principle of the dc SQUID.
The SQUID is biased with a current slightly above the
maximum value of Ic and the dc voltage V across the
junctions is read out directly as a function of external
magnetic field. When Ic is maximum, V is minimum and vice
versa. The dc SQUID thus directly acts as a flux-to-voltage
transducer.
rf SQUID
Consists of a single Josephson junction incorporated
into a superconducting loop and operates with an rf
bias.
The SQUID is coupled to the inductor of an LC-
resonant circuit excited at its resonant frequency,
typically 30 MHz.
The characteristics of rf voltage across the tank
circuit versus the rf current depends on applied flux.
With proper adjustment of the rf current, the
amplitude of the rf voltage across the tank circuit
oscillates as a function of applied flux.
Figure 10
Biomedical Applications of SQUID
Magnetocardiography
Magnetoencephalography
Magnetogastrography
Liver Susceptometry
Magnetic Relaxation Immunoassay
MagnetoCardioGraphy
Magnetocardiography is the measurement and
analysis of the magnetic component of the electro-
magnetic field of the human heart.
In comparison to the electrical signals measured
by ECG, the magnetic signal is not disturbed on
boundaries of tissues with different electrical
properties.
The MCG measurement is done inside a
magnetically shielded room (MSR).
The system has a 64-channel magnetic sensors
inside the dewar, and each magnetic sensor probe
incorporates a first-order gradiometer.
This area covers the entire heart of an adult.
The dewar containing SQUID sensors is placed as
close as possible to the anterior chest without
touching it.
Each sensor is set to its exact position by using a
laser pointer.
Detection of myocardial ischemia by magneto cardiogram using 64-
channel SQUID system
M. Sato, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Fujita Health University
School of Medicine, Japan
Aim -- Visualize MI by measuring MCG using a 64channel
SQUID system, and compare the effectiveness of this
approach to the resting standard 12-lead ECG
Figure 11
Figure 12
Mean of QRS and ST segment done in both IHD
and normal subjects
Figure 13
Figure 14
Liver Susceptometry
The use of SQUIDs for the assessment of iron
overload was first suggested by Wikswo
The content of paramagnetic iron in the liver is
determined by measuring the response of Liver to an
applied magnetic field.
Second-order gradiometers coupled to a helium-
cooled SQUID for measuring the variation of the
magnetic flux
Figure15
Uses of Liver Susceptometry
Non – Invasive , liver biopsy not necessary
While MRI provides a spatially resolved
image of the affected organs, SQUID based
susceptometry provides an integral
assessment of the iron load.
Magnetogastrography/Magnetoenterograp
hy
Measuring spontaneous activity of smooth muscle of
stomach by measuring the biomagnetic field
Non invasive and no radiation unlike barium meal
study
Magnetic Marker Monitoring
Magnetic capsule swallowed by patient and motion studied
by magnetic tracing.
Used in studying the erosion or dissolution of oral
drugs
study of the function and efficacy of the peristaltic activity of
the gastrointestinal organs
MagnetoEncephaloGraphy
Localizing and characterizing the electrical activity
of the central nervous system by measuring the
associated magnetic field from the Brain
The neuronal current flow generates an associated
magnetic field of Magnitude only a few hundred
femto Tesla
Present-day MEG dewars are helmet-shaped and
contain as many as 300 sensors, covering most of
the head
Figure 16
In contrast to electric fields, magnetic fields are less
distorted by the resistive properties of the skull and
scalp, which result in a better spatial resolution of
the MEG.
MEG selectively measures the activity in the sulci,
whereas scalp EEG measures activity both in the
sulci and at the top of the cortical gyri
MEG is therefore more sensitive to superficial
cortical activity, which should be useful for the
study of neocortical epilepsy.
Finally, MEG is reference-free which is in contrast
to scalp EEG, where an active reference can lead to
serious difficulties in the interpretation of the data
References
The SQUID Handbook Vol I – John Clarke
The SQUID Handbook Vol II – John Clarke
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I hereby conclude my session….
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