HYDROSTATIC FORCES
ON SURFACES
HYDRAULICS
MODULE-I
• The term hydrostatic means the study of pressure exerted by liquid at
rest.
• When a static mass of fluid comes in contact with a surface, either
plane or curved, a force is exerted by the fluid on the surface. This
force is known as Total Pressure.
• The total pressure acts in the direction normal to the surface.
• The point of application of total pressure on the surface is known as
centre of pressure.
• It is denoted by F.
• The S.I unit of total pressure is Newton (N)
Total pressure on a horizontal plane surface
• Consider a plane surface immersed in a static mass of liquid of specific
weight w, such that it is held in a horizontal position at a depth h
below the free surface of the liquid as shown in figure below.
• Since every point on the surface is at the same depth below the free surface of
the liquid, the pressure intensity is constant over the entire plane surface, being
equal to p=wh.
• Thus If A is the total area of the surface then,
• The total pressure on the horizontal surface p=wh A =wAh
• The direction of this force is normal to the surface as such it is being acting
towards the surface in the vertical downward direction at the centroid of the
surface.
Total pressure on a Vertical plane
surface
•
=
• The above equation gives the position of the centre of pressure on a plane
surface immersed vertically in a static mass of liquid. Since for any plane
surface the term is always positive, indicates that
• That is the Centre of pressure is always below the centroid of the area.
• Further it is seen that deeper the surface submerged, i.e., the greater is the
value of , the term becomes smaller and the centre of pressure comes
closer to the centroid of the plane surface.
Thus for a Vertical plane surface
Total Pressure = w A 𝑥ҧ
ഥ 𝐼𝐺
Centre of Pressure, ℎ = + 𝑥ҧ
𝐴𝑥ҧ
• Problem 1:
A circular plate of diameter 1.2 m placed vertically in water in such a way that the
Centre of the plate is 2.5 m below the free surface of water. Determine the (i) Total
pressure on the plate (ii) Position of Centre of pressure
Problem 2: An isosceles triangular plate of base 3 m and altitude 3 m is immersed
vertically in an oil of specific gravity 0.8. The base of the plate coincides with the
free surface of oil. Determine
• Total pressure on the plate
• Centre of pressure
Problem3: A trapezoidal 2 m wide at the bottom and 1 m deep has side slopes 1:1.
Determine Total pressure and centre of pressure on the vertical gate closing the
channel when it is full of water.
Problem 2: A triangular plate of 1 m base and 1.5 m altitude is immersed in water.
The plane of the plate is inclined at 300 with free water surface and the base is at a
depth of 2 m from water surface. Find the total pressure on the plate and the
position of centre of pressure
•
Practical Applications- Sluice gate
• In several hydraulic structures, openings are required to be provided in order to
carry water from the place of its storage to the place of its utilization for various
purposes. The flow of water through such openings, called sluices is controlled by
means of gates which are known as sluice gates. A sluice gate may have water
either on one side of the gate or on both sides of the gate. Accordingly it will be
subjected to water pressure on one side of the gate only or on both sides of the
gate.
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
Rate of flow/ Discharge
• It is defines as the quantity of fluid flowing per second through a section of a pipe
or a channel.
• The volume of liquid passing through a cross section of conduit per unit time a 1
v 1 or a2 v 2 is known as discharge or rate of flow.
• It is generally denoted by Q and expressed in cubic meters per second or
litres/second.
• One cubic meters per second may be written as cumec
• Q = a1 v 1 = a2 v 2
ENERGIES OF LIQUID IN MOTION
• Potential head or Potential Energy:
• This is due to configuration or position above some suitable datum line. If a
point in liquid is at a height of Z m from datum line, Potential head is Z m of
liquid
• Potential energy = mgZ Nm
• For 1 kg of mass, Potential Energy = gZ Nm/kg.
• Velocity head or Kinetic Energy:
• This is due to velocity of flowing fluid and its kinetic head is measured as
where v is the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
• Kinetic Energy = mv2 Nm
• For 1 kg of mass , Kinetic energy = Nm/kg
• Pressure head or Pressure Energy
• This is due to pressure of liquid and Pressure head is reckoned as ,where p is
the pressure, and w is weight density of fluid.
• Pressure energy = Nm/kg
• Total head/Energy :
• Total head of a liquid in motion is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head
and pressure head. Mathematically;
• Total head, H = z + m of liquid
• Total Energy E = gZ + Nm/kg
• Problem 1: In a pipe of 90 mm diameter water is flowing with a mean
velocity of 2 m/s and at a gage pressure of 350 kN/m2. Determine the
total head, if the pipe is 8 meters above the datum line.
H=z+
=8+ + =43.88 m
BERNOULLIS THEOREM
• Problem 1:
Water is flowing through a pipe line having diameters 600 mm and 400 mm at the bottom
and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 350 kN/m2 and
the pressure at the upper end is 100kN/m2. Determine the difference in datum head if the
rate of flow through the pipe is 60litres/second
• Problem 2:
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at sections
1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 litres/sec. The section 1 is
6 m above datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is
39.24 N/cm2, find the intensity of pressure at section 2.
Problem 2:
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at sections 1 and
2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 litres/s. The section 1 is 6 m above
datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2, find
the intensity of pressure at section 2.
• Problem 3:
The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100 m having diameters 600
mm at the upper end and 300 mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50 litres/sec. The
pipe has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end if the pressure at the
higher level is 19.62 N/cm2
Problem 3: The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100 m having
diameters 600 mm at the upper end and 300 mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50
litres/s. The pipe has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end if the
pressure at the higher level is 19.62 N/cm2
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
• The Bernoulli’s theorem is the basic equation which has the widest
applications in Hydraulics. Though the Bernoulli’s equation has a
number of practical applications, we shall discuss its applications on
the following hydraulic devices.
1. Venturi meter
2. Orifice meter
3. Pitot Tube
Venturi meter:
•It is an instrument used to measure rate of discharge in a pipe line and is often
fixed permanently at different sections of the pipe line to know the discharge there.
• Basic principle:
By reducing the cross sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is
created and the measurement of pressure difference enables the determination of
discharge through the pipe.
• In its simplest form, consists of the following parts
• Convergent cone: Short pipe tapers from original size of the pipe to that of the
throat of the venture meter. It has a total included angle of 210±10
• Throat: It is a short parallel sided tube with its cross sectional area smaller
than that of the pipe. It is a small portion of circular pipe in which the
diameter is kept constant.
• Divergent cone: It is a gradually diverging pipe. It’s cross sectional area
increases from throat to the original size of the pipe. The total included angle
is approximately about 60.
• It is made longer with gradual divergence of flow; otherwise flow will separate
out from the walls. The length of the divergent cone is about 3 to 4times that of
the convergent cone.
• Since the cross sectional area of the throat is smaller than that of the cross
sectional area of the inlet section, the increased velocity of flow at the throat
results in decreased pressure at this section. The pressure difference developed
between inlet section and throat determined by connecting a differential
manometer between inlet section and throat.
•On applying Bernoulli’s equation between inlet section1 and throat
section 2, we get
• Theoretical discharge through the venture meter as
Qth =
Where a1 =Cross sectional Area at inlet section 1
a 2 = Cross sectional area at throat (Section 2)
h=Difference of pressure head measured in meters of water
measured by U- tube manometer.
• Always
there is some loss of energy as the fluid flows through the venture meter.
Hence actual discharge is always less than Theoretical discharge.
Hence Actual discharge = Qact =
Where = Coefficient of Venturi meter or Coefficient of Discharge and its value is
less than unity
•Value
of ‘h’ by differential manometer:
Case 1: Differential manometer containing a liquid heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.
Let,
Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid
Sp =Specific gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe and
X= Difference of the heavier liquid column in U tube
Then h= x
Case 2: Differential manometer containing a liquid lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.
Then h= x
Where Sl= Specific gravity of lighter liquid
Sp =Specific gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
X= Difference of the heavier liquid column in U tube
Problem 1:
A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 200 mm and throat diameter 100 mm is used
to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is 0.18 N/mm2 and the vacuum pressure
at the throat is 280 mm of mercury. Find the rate of flow. The value of Cd may be taken as .
98.
Problem 2: A horizontal venturi meter with inlet diameter 200 mm and throat diameter 100
mm is employed to measure the flow of water. The reading of the differential manometer
connected to the inlet is 180 mm of mercury. If the coefficient of discharge is .98, determine
the rate of flow.
Orifice meter:
• Orifice meter or orifice plate is a device employed for measuring the discharge of
fluid through a pipe. It also works on the same principle of a Venturi meter.
• It
consists of a flat circular plate having a circular sharp edged hole (called orifice)
concentric with the pipe.
• The diameter of the orifice may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the diameter of the pipe
but its value is generally chosen as 0.5.
• A differential manometer is connected at section (1) which is at a distance of 1.5 to
2 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate and at section (2) which is
at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side.
On applying Bernoulli’s equation between section(1) and section (2)
Qact =
Where a1= Cross sectional area of the pipe at section 1
a2 = Cross sectional area of the pipe at section 2
h= Reading of the Mercury Manometer
•If, a1= Cross sectional area of the pipe
a0 = Area of orifice
Actual discharge = Qact =
• Where Cd = Coefficient of discharge for orifice which is much smaller than that of
venturimeter.
• Because in the case of an orifice meter there are no gradual converging and
diverging flow passages as in the case of venturimeter, results in a greater loss of
energy and consequent reduction of the value of Cd for an orifice meter.
Problem 1: The following data relate to an orifice meter
Diameter of the pipe 240 mm, diameter of the orifice =120 mm. Specific gravity of the
oil=.88, Reading of the differential manometer = 400 mm of mercury, Cd= .65, determine
the rate of oil.
Pitot Tube
• Pitot tube is one of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement.
• It works on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the
pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into pressure.
• It consists of a glass tube in the form of a 90 0 bend of short length open at both its ends.
• It is placed in the flow with its bent leg directed upstream so that stagnation point is
created immediately in front of the opening.
• The kinetic energy at this point gets converted into pressure causing the liquid to rise in
the vertical limb, to a height equal to the stagnation pressure.
•
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation between stagnation point S and point P
in the undisturbed flow at the same horizontal plane, we get,
V= )
V=
• P0 =Pressure at point P (Static Pressure)
• V= velocity at point P, free flow velocity
• Ps = stagnation pressure at point S and
• Vact =
If differential manometer is connected to the tubes of a pitot tube it will
measure dynamic pressure head
h= x
o Where x= manometric difference
o Sm =Specific gravity of manometric liquid
o S= Specific gravity of liquid flowing through the pipe.
• Problem 1: A submarine fitted with a pitot tube moves horizontally in sea. Its axis is
12 m below the surface of water. The pitot tube fixed in front of the submarine and
along its axis is connected to the two limbs of a U tube containing Mercury, the
reading of which is found to be 200 mm. Find the speed of the submarine. Take
specific gravity of sea water as 1.025 times fresh water.
• SYLLABUS
• Scope of hydraulics in engineering- definition of density, specific weight, specific gravity, viscosity
kinematics & dynamic viscosity, compressibility, vapour pressure, cohesion, adhesion, surface tension
and capillarity.
• Intensity of pressure at a point -pressure head- units of pressure- Pascal’s law (statementonly)
Atmospheric pressure, Gauge pressure ,Absolute pressure, vacuum pressure–problems.
• Measurements of atmospheric pressure- simple mercury barometers -pressure measuring devices.
peizometer tubes, manometers -U-tube- simple, differential and inverted tubes only–Mechanical
Gauge–Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
• Pressure on a plane surface immersed in liquid. Total pressure and center of pressure on horizontal,
vertical and inclined surfaces immersed in liquids. Pressure on sluice gate–problems.
• Flow of Fluid -Types of flow–uniform, non uniform, dv/dt = 0, dv/dt≠0, streamline ,turbulent, steady &
unsteady flow, compressible & incompressible flow–Definitions and mathematical expression, dv/dt =
0, dv/dt≠0, dv/ds = 0, dv/ds≠0. Equaton of contnuity of flow–Problems.
• Types of energy need–static, pressure and velocity energy need–total energy of flowing liquid.
Expressions for energy & height of liquid column.
• Bernoulli’s theorem–statement and proof (Only 2–dimensional)–problems–Assumptions & limitations–
application–venturimeter, orifice meter and pitot tube–Problems.
