ELECTRIC CIRCUIT II

BEJ 10403
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
FIRST ORDER
CIRCUIT
Lecture Contents

Introduction
Introduction

The source-free RC circuit

The source-free RL circuit

Singularity Functions

Step Response RC Circuit

Step Response RL Circuit
 2.1
Introduction to First Order
RL & RC Circuits
2.1 First order circuits
◼ First order circuits are electrical circuits that
contain a single energy storage element (either a
capacitor or an inductor).
◼ The number of capacitors and inductors in a
circuit determine the differential order of the
equation that represents the network.
◼ Hence a first order differential equation is
required to solve a circuit containing a single
energy storage element.

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Important Concepts

◼The differential equation

◼Forced and natural solutions
◼The time constant
◼Transient and steady-state waveforms

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◼The total response of a first order circuit is
made up of two parts; the transient
response and the steady state
response.
Total Response

Transient Response + Steady State Response

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 Transient response
- is the initial response of the circuit to a
change at its input. This response decays
exponentially, and will eventually disappear.

Steady state response

- is the response of the circuit after all
conditions have stabilized.

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 2.2
The source-free RC
circuit
2.2 The source-free RC circuit

◼ A source-free RC circuit
occurs when its dc source
is suddenly disconnected.

◼ The energy already stored

in the capacitor is released
to the resistors.
▪ Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can
assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is:
ν(0) = V0 (2.1)

with the corresponding value of the energy stored as

w(0) = (2.2)
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▪ Applying KCL at the top
node of the circuit
iC + iR = 0 (2.3)

▪ By definition, iC = and iR =
Thus

+ =0 (2.4)

or + =0 (2.5)

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▪ This is a first-order differential equation, since only
the first derivative of ν is involved. To solve it, we
rearrange the terms as

▪ Integrating both sides, we get

▪ where ln A is the integration constant

(2.6)
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▪ Taking powers of e produces

▪ But from the initial conditions,

ν (0) = A = V0 . Hence,

(2.7)

This shows that the voltage response of the RC

circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.

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▪ Since the response is due to the initial energy
stored and the physical characteristics of the
circuit and not due to some external voltage or
current source, it is called the natural response
of the circuit. Natural response: the
behavior (in terms of
voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself,
with no external sources of
excitation.

The voltage response

of the RC circuit

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▪ The time constant, , of a circuit is the time
required for the response to decay by a factor of

or 36.8 % of its initial value.

▪ This implies that at t = , Eq. (6.7) becomes

= = 0.368 V0

or = RC (2.8)

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▪ In terms of the time constant, Eq. (6.7) can be
written as
(2.9)

▪ The capacitor is fully discharged (or charged)

after five time constants.

▪ In other words, it takes 5 for the circuit to

reach its final state or steady state when no
changes take place with time.

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▪ With the voltage in Eq. (2.9), we can find the
current iR(t),

(2.10)

▪ The power dissipated in the resistor is

(2.11)

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▪ The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t
is (eq. 2.12)

▪ Notice that as t → ∞, → , which is the

same as , the energy initially stored in the
capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in
the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the
resistor. 19
 2.3
The source-free RL
circuit
2.3 The source-free RL circuit

◼ To determine the circuit response, we will assume

the current i(t) through the inductor.
▪ At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has
an initial current I0 , or
i (0) = I0 (2.13)

▪ with the corresponding energy stored in

the inductor as

w (0) = (2.14)

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▪ Applying KVL around the loop in the figure
above,

ν L + νR = 0 (2.15)

▪ But νL = and νR = iR. Thus

+ Ri = 0

or (2.16)
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▪ Rearranging terms and integrating gives

or (2.17)

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Taking the powers of e, we have
(2.18)

Current response
of the RL circuit

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▪ Therefore, from Eq. (2.18), the time
constant for the RL circuit is
τ = (2.19)

Thus Eq. (2.18) may be written as

(2.20)

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▪ With the current in Eq. (6.20), we can find
the voltage across the resistor as

(2.21)

The power dissipated in the resistor is

(2.22)

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▪ The energy absorbed by the resistor is

(2.23)

Note that as t → ∞, wR(∞) → ,

which is the same as wL(0).

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 2.4
Singularity Function
 2.4 Singularity Functions
(Mathematical concepts)
▪ Singularity functions (also called switching
functions) are very useful in circuit analysis.

▪ They serve as good approximations to the

switching signals that arise in circuits with
switching operations.

▪ The most widely used singularity functions in

circuit analysis are the unit step, impulse (or
delta), and ramp functions.
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The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values
of t and 1 for positive values of t.
In mathematical terms,

u(t) = (2.24)

u(t)

t
Fig.1:The unit step function
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If the abrupt change occurs at t = t0(where t0>0)
instead of t = 0, the unit step functions becomes;

u(t - t0) = (2.25)

u(t - t0)

u(t) is delayed by t0 seconds

t0 t
Fig.2 :The unit step function
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If the change occurs at t = - t0(where t0<0)
instead of t=0, the unit step functions becomes;

u(t + t0) = (2.26)

u(t + t0)
1

u(t) is advanced by t0 seconds

- t0 0 t
Fig. 3: The unit step advanced by to
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We use the step function to represent an abrupt
change in voltage or current,
eg. changes occurs in the circuits of control
systems and digital computers.

v(t) = (2.27)

v(t) = V0 u(t – t0)

If t0=0 🡺 v(t) = V0 u(t)

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 t=
a 0 a

+ +
V0u(t) -
Vo -

b b

(a) Voltage source of V0u(t) (b) Its equivalent circuit

Figure 4

In Fig. 4 (b), terminals a-b are short-circuited (v=0)

for t<0 and that v=V0 appears at the terminals for
t>0. 35
 t= i
a 0 a

I0u(t) Io

b b

(a) Current source of I0u(t) (b) Its equivalent circuit

Figure 5

Similarly, in Fig. 5 (b) terminals a-b are open-

circuited (i=0) for t<0 and that i=I0 flows for t>0.
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▪ The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit
impulse function, ,which we write as

(2.28)

0 t
Fig. 6:The unit impulse function
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Unit impulse may be expressed mathematically as

(2.29)

Strength of impulse function=10

t
-2 -1 0 1 2 3

Fig. 7: Three impulse function

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Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the
unit ramp function, r(t), we write

r(t)
1

(2.30) 0 1 t
Fig.8: The unit ramp function

The
The unit
unit ramp
ramp function
function isis zero
zero for
for negative
negativevalues
values of
of tt
and
and has
has aaunit
unit slope
slope for
for positive
positivevalues
values of
of tt
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For the delayed unit ramp function,

r(t-t0)
1

(2.31)

0 t0 t0+1 t
Fig. 9: The unit ramp
function delayed by t0

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For the advanced unit ramp function,

r(t+t0)

1
(2.32)

-t0 -t0+1 0 t
Fig. 10: The unit ramp
function advanced by t0

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 2.5
Step Response RC
Circuit
2.5 Step Response RC Circuit
▪ When the dc source of an RC circuit is
suddenly applied, the voltage or current
source can be modeled as a step function
and the response is known as a step
response, as in Figure 1.
▪ The step response of a circuit is its behavior
when the excitation is the step function,
which may be a voltage or a current source.

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 v(0-) = voltage across
capacitor just before
switching
v(0+) = voltage immediately
after switching
● Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0 Since the
capacitor
voltage cannot
● Applying KCL, change
instantaneously

or

● Where u(t) is the unit-step function

Fig. 1: Step response of RC circuit

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▪ The expression of step response of RC circuit is
given as:

This is known as the complete

response
or (total response) of the RC
circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage
source, assuming Fig. 2: Step response of an RC circuit with
the capacitor is initially charged. initially charged capacitor

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▪ If the capacitor is assumed not
charged initially, therefore V0 = 0,

• Which can be written alternatively as:

• This is the complete step response of

the RC circuit when the capacitor is
initially uncharged.
Fig. 3: Step response of an RC circuit with
initially uncharged capacitor

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▪ The current through the capacitor is obtained
from i(t) = C dv/dt, we get;

▪ for t > 0

Fig. 3: Step response of an RC circuit with

initially uncharged capacitor – current
response

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 Final value Initial value Source-free
at t -> ∞ at t = 0 Response

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy) (independent source)

= V0e–t/τ + Vs(1–e–t/τ)

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Three steps to find out the step response of an
RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage, v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage, v(∞) — DC voltage
across C.
3. The time constant, τ.

Therefore, step response form in general is:

Note: This equation applies only to step response, that is when the
input excitation is constant.
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 2.6
Step Response RL
Circuit
 2.6 Step Response of RL Circuit
▪ The step response of a circuit is its
behavior when the excitation is the step
function, which may be a voltage or a
current source.

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▪ Consider the RL circuit in Figure 4
🡪 our goal is to find the inductor current, i

as the circuit response

R t=0 R
i i
+ +
+
- Vs L v(t) +
- Vsu(t) L v(t)
- -

(a) (b)

Figure 4: An RL circuit with step input voltage

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▪ Let the response to be the sum of the natural current and
the forced current,

i = in + if -----------------(16)

▪ We know that the natural response is always a decaying

exponential, that is

where A is a constant to be determined.

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▪ The forced response is the value of the current a long
time after the switch in Figure 4(a) is closed.

▪ At that time, the inductor becomes a short circuit , and

the voltage across it is zero.

▪ The entire source voltage Vs appears across R.

Thus, the forced response is,

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55
56
▪ The response in Eq.(21) may be written as

where i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i.

Thus, to find the step response of an RL circuit requires

three things:

1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t=0+

(obtained for the given circuit for t<0)

2. The final inductor current i( ).

(obtained for the given circuit for t>0)

3. The time constant .

(obtained for the given circuit for t>0)
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▪ Again, if the switching takes place at time t=t0 instead of
t=0,Eq (12) becomes

▪ If I0 =0, then

This is the step response of the RL circuit

with no initial inductor current.
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▪ The voltage across the inductor is obtained from
Eq.24 using v=L di/dt.
▪ We get

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 Summary
▪The steady- state response
- behavior of the circuit after an independent source

has been applied for a long time

▪The transient response

- component of the complete response that dies with
time
Total response

steady-state response + transient response

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 Summary…
▪ The step response is the response of the circuit
to a sudden application of a dc current or
voltage.
▪ The step response may be written as

▪ Or more generally

▪ Or we may write it as
instantaneous value

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