MODULE IV

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
23/11/2021
 Introduction
• The measurement of a given quantity is the result of
comparison between the quantity to be measured and a
definite standard.
• The instruments which are used for such measurements
are called measuring instruments. The three basic
quantities in the electrical measurement are current,
voltage and power.
• The measurement of these quantities is important as it is
used for obtaining measurement of some other quantity
or used to test the performance of some electronic circuits
or components etc.
• The necessary requirements for any measuring
instruments are:
• 1) With the introduction of the instrument in the
circuit, the circuit conditions should not be
altered. Thus the quantity to be measured should
not get affected due to the instrument used.
• 2) The power consumed by the instruments for
their operation should be as small as possible.
• The instrument which measures the current flowing in the circuit is called
ammeter while the instrument which measures the voltage across any two
points of a circuit is called voltmeter.
• But there is no fundamental difference in the operating principle of analog
voltmeter and ammeter.
• The action of almost all the analog ammeters and voltmeters depends on the
deflecting torque produced by an electric current.
• In ammeters such a torque is proportional to the current to be measured.
• In voltmeters this torque is decided by a current which is proportional to the
voltage to be measured.
• Thus all the analog ammeters and voltmeters are basically current measuring
devices.
• The instruments which are used to measure the power are called power
meters or watt meters.
Classification of Measuring Instruments

• Electrical measuring instruments are mainly

classified as:
• a) Indicating instruments
• b) Recording instruments
• c) Integrating instruments
 a) Indicating instruments

• These instruments make use of a dial and

pointer for showing or indicating magnitude of
unknown quantity. The examples are
ammeters, voltmeter etc.
 b) Recording instruments
• These instruments give a continuous record of the given
electrical quantity which is being measured over a specific
period.
• The examples are various types of recorders. In such
recording instruments, the readings are recorded by
drawing the graph.
• The pointer of such instruments is provided with a marker
i.e. pen or pencil, which moves on graph paper as per the
reading.
• The X-Y plotter is the best example of such an instrument.
 c) Integrating instruments
• These instruments measure the total quantity
of electricity delivered over period of time.
• For example a household energy meter
registers number of revolutions made by the
disc to give the total energy delivered, with
the help of counting mechanism consisting of
dials and pointers.
 Essential Requirements of an Instrument
• In case of measuring instruments, the effect of
unknown quantity is converted into a mechanical force
which is transmitted to the pointer which moves over a
calibrated scale.
• The moving system of such instrument is mounted on a
pivoted spindle.
• For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument,
following systems must be present in an instrument.
• 1) Deflecting system producing deflecting torque Td.
• 2) Controlling system producing controlling torque Tc.
• 3) Damping system producing damping torque.
 Deflecting System
• In most of the indicating instruments the
mechanical force proportional to the quantity
to be measured is generated.
• This force or torque deflects the pointer.
• The system which produces such a deflecting
torque is called deflecting system and the
torque is denoted as Td.
• The deflecting torque overcomes,
• 1) The inertia of the moving system.
• 2) The controlling torque provided by
controlling system.
• 3) The damping torque provided by damping
system.
 Effects to produce deflecting torque
• The deflecting system uses one of the following
effects produced by current or voltage, to
produce deflecting torque.
• 1) Magnetic Effect: When a current carrying
conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a force which causes to move it.
This effect is mostly used in many instruments
like moving iron attraction and repulsion type,
permanent magnet moving coil instruments etc.
 2) Thermal Effect
• The current to be measured is passed through a
small element which heats it to cause rise in
temperature which is converted to an e.m.f. by a
thermocouple attached to it.
• When two dissimilar metals are connected end to
end to form a closed loop and the two junctions
formed are maintained at different temperatures,
then e.m.f. is induced which causes the flow of
current through the closed circuit which is called a
thermocouple.
 3) Electrostatic Effects:
• When two plates are charged, there is a force
exerted between them, which moves one of
the plates. This effect is used in electrostatic
instruments which are normally voltmeters.
 4) Induction Effects
• When a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed
in a magnetic field produced by electromagnets
which are excited by alternating currents, an
e.m.f. is induced in it. If a closed path is
provided, there is a flow of current in the disc.
• The interaction between induced currents and
the alternating magnetic fields exerts a force on
the disc which causes to move it.
• This interaction is called an induction effect. This
principle is mainly used in energy meters.
 5) Hall Effect
• If a bar of semiconducting material is placed in uniform
magnetic field and if the bar carries current, then an
e.m.f. is produced between two edges of conductor.
• The magnitude of this e.m.f. depends on flux density of
magnetic field, current passing through the conducting
bar and hall effect co-efficient which is constant for a
given semiconductor.
• This effect is mainly used in flux-meters.
• Thus the deflecting system provides the deflecting
torque or operating torque for movement of pointer
from its zero position.
• It acts as the prime mover for the deflection of pointer.
 Controlling System
• This system should provide a force so that
current or any other electrical quantity will
produce deflection of the pointer proportional
to its magnitude.
 Controlling System
• The important functions of this system are,
• 1) It produces a force equal and opposite to the
deflecting force in order to make the deflection of
pointer at a definite magnitude. If this system is
absent, then the pointer will swing beyond its final
steady position for the given magnitude and deflection
will become indefinite.
• 2) It brings the moving system back to zero position
when the force which causes the movement of the
moving system is removed. It will never come back to
its zero position in the absence of controlling system.
Controlling torque is generally provided by springs.
Sometimes gravity control is also used
 Gravity Control
• This type of control consists
of a small weight attached to
the moving system whose
position is adjustable. This
weight produces a
controlling torque due to
gravity. This weight is called
control weight. The Fig. 2.5.1
shows the gravity control
system. At the zero position
of the pointer, the
controlling torque is zero.
• This position is shown as position
A of the weight in the Fig. 2.5.2.
• If the system deflects, the weight
position also changes, as shown
in the Fig. 2.5.2.
• The system deflects through an
angle θ. The control weight acts
at a distance l from the centre.
• The component W sin θ of this
weight tries to restore the pointer
back to the zero position.
• This is nothing but the controlling
torque Tc.
• Thus controlling torque
 Advantages of gravity control
• 1) Its performance is not time dependent.
• 2) It is simple and cheap.
• 3) The controlling torque can be varied by
adjusting the position of the control weight.
• 4) Its performance is not temperature
dependent
 Disadvantages of gravity control
• 1) The scale is non-uniform causing problems to
record accurate readings.
• 2) The system must be used in vertical position
only and must be properly levelled. Otherwise it
may cause serious errors in the measurement.
• 3) As delicate and proper levelling required, in
general it is not used for indicating instruments
and portable instruments
 Spring Control
• Two hair springs are attached to the moving system
which exerts controlling torque.
• To employ spring control to an instrument, following
requirements are essential.
• 1) The spring should be non-magnetic.
• 2) The spring should be free from mechanical stress.
• 3) The spring should have a small resistance, sufficient
cross-sectional area.
• 4) It should have low resistance temperature co-
efficient.
• The arrangement of the springs
is shown in the Fig. 2.5.3.
• The springs are made up of
non-magnetic materials like
silicon bronze, hard rolled
silver or copper, platinum silver
and german silver. For most of
the instruments, phosphor
bronze spiral springs are
provided. Flat spiral springs are
used in almost all indicating
instruments.
• The inner end of the spring is
attached to the spindle while
the outer end is attached to a
lever or arm which is actuated
by a set of screw mounted at
the front of the instrument.
• So zero setting can be easily
done.
• The controlling torque provided
by the instrument is directly
proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer.
• The controlling torque produced by spiral
spring is given by,

When the current is

removed, due to spring force
the pointer comes back to
initial position.
The spring control is very
popular and is used in almost
all indicating instruments
Comparison of Controlling Systems
 Damping System

• The deflecting torque provides some deflection and

controlling torque acts in the opposite direction to that of
deflecting torque.
• So before coming to the rest, pointer always oscillates due
to inertia, about the equilibrium position.
• Unless pointer rests, final reading cannot be obtained. So to
bring the pointer to rest within short time, damping system
is required.
• The system should provide a damping torque only when
the moving system is in motion.
• Damping torque is proportional to velocity of the moving
system but it does not depend on operating current.
• It must not affect controlling torque or increase the friction.
• The quickness with which the moving system
settles to the final steady position depends on
relative damping. If the moving system reaches
to its final position rapidly but smoothly without
oscillations, the instrument is said to be critically
damped. If the instrument is under damped, the
moving system will oscillate about the final
steady position with a decreasing amplitude and
will take sometime to come to rest.
• While the instrument is said to
be over damped if the moving
system moves slowly to its final
steady position.
• In over damped case the
response of the system is very
slow and sluggish.
• In practice slightly under
damped systems are preferred.
The time response of damping
system for various types of
damping conditions is shown in
the Fig. 2.6.1.
• The following methods are used to produce
damping torque.
• 1) Air friction damping
• 2) Fluid friction damping
• 3) Eddy current damping.
 Air Friction Damping
• This arrangement consists of
a light aluminium piston
which is attached to the
moving system, as shown in
the Fig. 2.6.2. The piston
moves in a fixed air chamber.
It is close to one end. The
clearance between piston
and wall chambers is uniform
and small. The piston
reciprocates in the chamber
when there are oscillations.
 Air Friction Damping
• When piston moves into the chamber,
air inside is compressed and pressure
of air developed due to friction
opposes the motion of pointer.
• There is also opposition to motion of
moving system when piston moves
out of the chamber.
• Thus the oscillations and the
overshoot gets reduced due to 'to and
fro' motion of the piston in the
chamber, providing necessary
damping torque.
• This helps in settling down the pointer
to its final steady position very quickly.
 Fluid Friction Damping

• Fluid friction damping may be used in

some instruments.
• The method is similar to air friction
damping, only air is replaced by
working fluid.
• The friction between the disc and fluid
is used for opposing motion.
• Damping force due to fluid is greater
than that of air due to more viscosity.
The disc is also called vane. The
arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.6.3.
• It consists of a vane attached to the
spindle which is completely dipped in
the oil. The frictional force between oil
and the vane is used to produce the
damping torque, which opposes the
oscillating behaviour of the pointer
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages
• 1) Due to more viscosity of fluid, more damping is
provided. 2) The oil can also be used for insulation
purposes. 3) Due to up thrust of oil, the load on the
bearings is reduced, thus reducing the frictional errors.
• The disadvantages of this method are:
• 1) This can be only used for the instruments which are
in vertical position.
• 2) Due to oil leakage, the instruments cannot be kept
clean.
 Eddy Current Damping
• This is the most effective way of •
providing damping. It is based on the
Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law.
• When a conductor moves in a
magnetic field cutting the flux, e.m.f.
gets induced in it.
• And direction of this e.m.f. is so as to
oppose the cause producing it.
• In this method, an aluminium disc is
connected to the spindle.
• The arrangement of disc is such that
when it rotates, it cuts the magnetic
flux lines of a permanent magnet.
• The arrangement is shown in the Fig.
2.6.4.
 Eddy Current Damping
• When the pointer oscillates, aluminium
disc rotates under the influence of
magnetic field of damping magnet.
• So disc cuts the flux which causes an
induced e.m.f. in the disc.
• The disc is a closed path hence induced
e.m.f. circulates current through the
disc called eddy current.
• The direction of such eddy current is so
as oppose the cause producing it.
• The cause is relative motion between
disc and field. Thus it produces an
opposing torque so as to reduce the
oscillations of pointer. This brings
pointer to rest quickly. This is most
effective and efficient method of
damping