WELDING PROCESS

& DEFECTS
PRECISION EQUIPMENT’S (CHENNAI) PRIVATE LIMITED
SAFETY IN WELDING

Safety is an important
consideration in all welding,
cutting, and related work.
No activity is satisfactorily
completed if someone is injured.
For a more detailed look at
recommended safety
precautions refer to ANSI Z49.1,
Safety in Welding, Cutting, and
Allied Processes. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE
WARNING LABEL/BOARD

 FUMES AND GASES can be dangerous to your health.

 ARC RAYS can injure your eyes and burn your skin.
 ELECTRIC SHOCK can KILL.
• • Before use, read and understand the manufacturer’s instructions, the Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), and your employer’s safety practices.
• • Keep your head out of fumes.
• • Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the arc, or both, to keep fumes and gases
from your breathing zone and the general area.
• • Wear correct eye, ear, and body protection.
• • Do not touch live electrical parts
DESIGNATED WELDING AREA
PROTECTIVE SCREENING
BETWEEN WORK STATIONS
LENS SHADE
SELECTOR
WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Oxyacetylene Welding

 Gas Metal Arc Welding  Stud Welding
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
 Laser Beam Welding
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 Electron Beam
Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Electroslag Welding  Resistance Welding
SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING
SMAW
ELECTRODE COATING

• The electrode coating when dry is a non conductor of electricity. When an arc is struck the
following happens;
• 1. Shielding—some of the coating decomposes to form a gaseous shield for the molten metal.
• 2. De oxidation—the coating provides a fluxing action to remove impurities and oxygen and
other atmospheric gases.
• 3. Alloying—the coating provides additional alloying elements for the weld deposit.
• 4. Ionizing—when the flux coating becomes molten it improves electrical characteristics to
increase arc stability.
• 5. Insulating—the solidified slag provides an insulating blanket to slow down the weld metal
cooling rate. The thickness of the slag will have an effect on the weld bead appearance. Heavier
slag will produce beads that are smooth and have a good appearance. Thin slag will produce
deposits that have rougher surfaces.
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION

 E stands for Electrode

 The first two, or three, numbers refer to the
minimum tensile strength of the deposited
weld metal
 The next number refers to the positions in
which the electrode can be used.
 The last number in the designation • 1 indicates All position
describes other characteristics which are • 2 indicate that the molten metal is so fluid
determined by the composition of the that the electrode can only be used in the
coating present on the electrode. flat position for all welding types and in the
horizontal position for fillet welds only
• Eg. E7018 means that the tensile strength of
the deposited weld metal is at least 70 000 • 4 Downhill progression
psi
• 3 No longer used as designation
SIGNIFICANCE OF LAST DIGIT
OF SMAW IDENTIFICATION
STEEL ALLOY SUFFIXES FOR
SMAW ELECTRODES
GMAW
GMAW WELDING EQUIPMENT
GMAW ELECTRODE
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
GAS METAL ARC WELDING GUN
NOMENCLATURE
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING

SHELF SHIELDED
FCAW
DUAL SHIELDED FCAW
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION

• The second digit is either a “0”

or a “1.” A “0” means that the
electrode is suitable for use in
the flat or horizontal fillet
positions only, while a “1”
describes an electrode which
can be used in any position.
FCAW GUNS FOR GAS-SHIELDING
(TOP) AND SELF-SHIELDING
ELECTRODES (BOTTOM)
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
AWS TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
CLASSIFICATION
EFFECT OF WELDING CURRENT
TYPE ON PENETRATION
SUBMERGED ARC
WELDING
CLASSIFICATION OF
ELECTRODE
A Weld:* A union between materials caused by heat,
and or pressure

A Joint:* A configuration of members

Text Page Ref 1:1

Butt welds:*

Fillet welds:*

Spot/Seam welds:*

Plug/Slot welds:*

Edge welds:*
Butt joints: *

T joints: *

Lap joints: *

Corner joints:* Closed Open

corner corner*
Remember, the purposes of a weld preparation is to allow access
for the welding process, penetration and fusion through the area
of the joint and its faces*

The basic rule is this:

The more you take out, then the more you must put back in*

This has major effects on economics and distortion control etc

The root face, root gap and angle of bevel values, the choice of
single, or double sided preparations, are dictated only by the type
of welding process, the position and accessibility of the joint*
Angle of bevel*
Root face*

Included angle*

Root radius* Root gap*

Root landing*
Single bevel

Single V

Single J

Single U*
Double bevel

Double V

Double J

Double U*
A butt welded butt joint*

A fillet welded butt joint*

A compound welded butt joint*

A fillet welded T joint*

A butt welded T joint*

A compound welded T joint*

A fillet welded Lap joint*

A spot welded Lap joint*

A compound welded Lap joint*

A fillet welded Closed Corner joint*

A butt welded Closed Corner joint*

A compound welded Closed Corner joint*

An inside fillet welded Open Co
C rner joint*

An outside fillet welded Open Corner joint*

A double fillet welded Open Corner joint*

 Weld Face*
Actual Throat Thickness*
Weld Width*
[Link]. Weld Toes* Design Throat Thickness*

1 2
A

B 3 4

HAZ* Fusion Boundary*

Weld Root* Fusion Zone*
A + B = Excess Weld Metal**
 Vertical Leg Length*

Weld face*

Horizontal Leg Length*

Excess weld metal **
Design throat*
Actual throat*
“a” = Nominal throat thickness “s” = Effective throat thickness

 
a s

Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW & SAW etc*

*
 6 mm

80°
Very Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle

3 mm*

20°
Improved Weld Toe Blend Angle
It is also possible that the height of excess weld metal is within
the accepted limit of an applied standard, but the toe blend is
unacceptable,
unacceptable as shown below*

90° 3 mm

Extremely poor toe blend, but excess weld metal is within limits*
Weld: A Union of materials
Joint: A Configuration of members
Weld Preparation: Preparing a joint to allow access and fusion.
Types of Weld: Butt. Fillet. Spot. Seam Plug. Slot. Edge.
Types of Joint: Butt. T. Lap. Corner (Open & Closed)
Types of Preparation: Bevel’s. V’s. J’s. U’s. Single & Double Sided.
Preparation Terms: Bevel/included angle. Root face/gap. Land/Radius
Weldment Terms: Weld face & root. Fusion zone & boundary. HAZ.
Weld [Link] width
Weld Sizing (Butts): DTT. ATT. Excess weld metal.
Weld Sizing (Fillets): DTT. ATT. Excess weld metal. Leg length *
DEFECTS AND
DISCONTINUITIES
DEFECT
• A flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated effect
render a part or product unable to meet minimum
applicable acceptance standards or specifications.
The term designates rejectability.
DISCONTINUITY
• An interruption of the typical structure of a material,
such as a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical,
metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A
discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.
WELD JOINT DISCONTINUITIES
 Misalignment (hi-lo) Inclusions
 Undercut  Slag
 Under fill  Wagon tracks
 Tungsten
 Concavity or
Convexity Spatter
 Excessive Arc Craters
reinforcement Cracks
 Improper  Longitudinal
reinforcement  Transverse
 Overlap  Crater
 Burn-through  Throat
 Incomplete or  Toe
Insufficient  Root
Penetration  Under bead and
Heat-affected zone
 Incomplete Fusion  Hot
 Surface irregularity  Cold or delayed
 Overlap
WELD JOINT DISCONTINUITIES
(CONT......)
 Base Metal
Discontinuities
 Lamellar tearing
 Laminations and De-
laminations
 Laps and Seams
 Porosity
 Uniformly Scattered
 Cluster
 Linear
 Piping
 Heat-affected zone
microstructure
alteration
 Base Plate
laminations
 MISALIGNMENT (HI-LO)

• Definition: Amount a joint is out

of alignment at the root

• Cause: Carelessness. Also due to joining different

thicknesses (transition thickness)
• Prevention: Workmanship. Transition angles not to exceed
2.5 to 1.
• Repair: Grinding. Careful on surface finish and direction of
grind marks. Inside of Pipe /Tube difficult.
 UNDERCUT
• Definition: A groove cut at the
toe of the weld and left unfilled.
• Cause: High amperage, electrode
angle, long arc length, rust
• Prevention: Set machine on scrap metal. Clean metal
before welding.
• Repair: Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must be
low hydrogen with preheat. Sometimes must gouge first.
UNDERCUT
(CONT......)

Undercut typically has an allowable limit. Different

codes and standards vary greatly in the allowable
amount.
 INSUFFICIENT FILL
• Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces
of the base metal

• Cause: Improper welding techniques

• Prevention: Apply proper welding techniques for the weld

type and position. Use stripper beads before the cover pass.
• Repair: Simply weld to fill. May require preparation by
grinding.
 INSUFFICIENT FILL ON THE ROOT
SIDE
(SUCK BACK)
• Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces
of the base metal at the weld root.
• Cause: Typically improper joint preparation or excessive
weld pool heat.
• Prevention: Correct cause. (see next slide)

• Repair: Backweld to fill. May requireremoval of weld

section by grinding for access to the joint root.
 REMOVING A ROOT PASS BY
GRINDING
 1. Recreate the groove geometry as closely as possible.
 2. Use a saw or die grinder and 1/16 - 1/8” cut off wheel to recreate root opening.
Remember repairs are sometimes required to be made with a smaller electrode.
 3. Open the groove angle. Be careful to leave the proper root face dimension.
 4. Feather the start and stop to blend smoothly into and out of the existing weld.
 EXCESSIVE CONCAVITY OR
CONVEXITY
• Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld which
exceeds the specified allowable limits

• Cause: Amperage and travel speed

• Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques.

• Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the
base metal.
Concavity
Convexity
 REINFORCEMENT
The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the surface of the plate

• Excessive
• Insufficient Face Reinforcement
• Improper contour

Root
Reinforcement
 EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT

• Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,

Reinforcement should be flush to 1/16”(pipe) or flush to
1/8” (plate or structural shapes).
• Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low
• Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.

• Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the

weld toes to a smooth transition to the base plate.
 Insufficient Reinforcement
• Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,
Underfill may be up to 5% of metal thickness not to exceed
1/32” as long as the thickness is made up in the opposite
reinforcement. Not applied to fillet welds.
• Cause: On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal will
cause thinning of the filler metal. In OH position, too hot or
too wide will cause drooping of the open root puddle.
• Prevention: Use proper welding technique. Use backing or
consumable inserts. Use back weld or backing.
• Repair: Possibly simply increase the face reinforcement. If
backwelding is not possible, must remove and reweld.
 Improper Weld Contour
• Definition: When the weld exhibits less than a 1350
transition angle at the weld toe. 1350

• Cause: Poor welding technique

• Prevention: Use proper techniques. A weave or whip

motion can often eliminate the problem.
• Repair: The weld face must be feathered into the base plate.
 OVERLAP
• Definition: When the face of the weld extends beyond the
toe of the weld
• Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically, electrode
angles and travel speed.
• Prevention: Overlap is a contour problem. Proper welding
technique will prevent this problem.
• Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly into
the base metal. Be careful of deep grind marks that run
transverse to the load. Also be careful of fusion
discontinuities hidden by grinding. Use NDT to be sure.
 Overlap
Overlap is measured with a square
edge such as a 6” rule. No amount
of overlap is typically allowed.
 BURN-THROUGH (NON-STANDARD)
• Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been
completely melted through the base metal. The hole may or
may not be left open.
• Cause: Excessive heat input.
• Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed,
use of a heat sink, or by reducing welding parameters.
• Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.
Otherwise, removal and rewelding may be required. Some
standards may require special filler metal and/or PWHT.
 INCOMPLETE OR INSUFFICIENT
PENETRATION
• Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the
required depth into the joint root
• Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast
travel speed, short arc length.
• Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).

• Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and reweld.

 INCOMPLETE FUSION
• Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive
bond with the base metal.
• Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast travel
speed, short arc gap, lack of preheat, electrode too small,
unclean base metal, arc off seam.
• Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes.

• Repair: remove and reweld, being careful to completely

remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find.
 ARC STRIKE
• Definition: A localized
coalescence outside the
weld zone.
• Cause: Carelessness
• Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be
protected using fire blankets.
• Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded
smooth and tested for cracks. If found, they must be remove
and repaired using a qualified repair procedure and
inspected as any other weld.
INCLUSIONS

• Slag
• Wagontracks
• Tungsten
 Slag Inclusion
• Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld

• Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld

in an area that is too tight. Slow travel in Vertical Down
• Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out tight
areas to gain access to bottom of joint.
• Repair: Remove by grinding. Reweld.
 Wagon Tracks (non-standard)
• Definition: Slang term for a groove left at the toe of a root
pass which becomes filled with slag and is trapped in the
weld.
• Cause: The contour of the root pass is too high, or the weld
toe is not bonded to the base metal
• Prevention: Use proper technique to deposit the weld root.

• Repair: Best repaired before applying the hot pass.

Carefully grind the root pass face flat. be careful not to
gouge other areas on the weldment.
 Tungsten Inclusion
• Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld.
(Typically GTAW only)
• Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high,
AC balance on +, Upslope too high, electrode tip not
snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched
with the fill rod, electrode split.
• Prevention: Eliminate the cause

• Repair: Grind out and reweld

INCLUSIONS

• fix when you see it. otherwise grind out & fix
 SPATTER

• Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the

welding operation which adhere to the base metal surface.
• Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high
amperages.
• Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be protected
with coverings or hi-temp paints.
• Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding. Sometimes must be
tested as if it were a weld.
 ARC CRATERS

• Definition: A depression left at the termination of the weld

where the weld pool is left unfilled.
• Cause: Improper weld termination techniques

• Prevention:

• Repair: If no cracks exist, simply fill in the crater. Generally

welding from beyond the crater back into the crater.
CRACKS
• Longitudinal
• Transverse
• Crater
• Throat
• Toe
• Root
• Underbead and Heat-affected zone
• Hot
• Cold or delayed
 A HAZ hydrogen crack, initiated at the weld toe
Most cracks are initiated from stress concentrations *
 Longitudinal Crack
• Definition: A crack running in the direction of the weld
axis. May be found in the weld or base metal.
• Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by
shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.
• Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also
preheat to even out the cooling rates.
• Repair: Remove and reweld
 Transverse Crack
• Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld, transverse
to the weld axis direction.
• Cause: Weld metal hardness problem

• Prevention:

• Repair:
 Crater Crack
• Definition: A crack, generally in the shape of an “X” which
is found in a crater. Crater cracks are hot cracks.
• Cause: The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the
outside of the weld pool, pulling the center apart during
cooling
• Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination
and/or preheat to even out the cooling of the puddle
• Repair:
 Throat Crack
• Definition: A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat
area.
• Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.
Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding
procedure. May be due to crater crack propagation.
• Prevention: Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat may
prevent it. be sure not to leave a crater. Use a more ductile
filler material.
• Repair: Remove and reweld using appropriate procedure.
Be sure to correct initial problem first.
 Toe Crack
• Definition: A crack in the base metal beginning at the toe of
the weld
• Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Indicates a HAZ
brittleness problem.
• Prevention: Increase preheat if possible, or use a more
ductile filler material.
• Repair:
 Root Crack
• Definition: A crack in the weld at the weld root.

• Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Same as a throat

crack.
• Prevention: Same as a throat crack

• Repair:
 Underbead Crack
• Definition: A crack in the unmelted parent metal of the
HAZ.
• Cause: Hydrogen embrittlement

• Prevention: Use Lo/Hi electrodes and/or preheat

• Repair: (only found using NDT). Remove and reweld.

 Hot Crack
• Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during
solidification.
• Cause: Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling
apart weld metal as it cools from liquid to solid temp.
• Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensil filler material.

• Repair:
 Cold Crack
• Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has
completely solidified
• Cause: Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds, Discontinuities

• Prevention: Preheat, weld toward areas of less constraint,

use a more ductile weld metal
• Repair: Remove and reweld, correct problem first, preheat
may be necessary.
REPAIRS TO CRACKS

• Determine the cause

• Correct the problem
• Take precautions to prevent reoccurrence
• Generally required to repair using a smaller
electrode
BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

• Lamellar tearing
• Laminations and Delaminations
• Laps and Seams
 LAMINATIONS
•Base Metal Discontinuity
•May require repair prior to welding
•Formed during the milling process
Lamination effects can be reduced by joint design:
DELAMINATIONS
 LAPS AND SEAMS
A mill-induced discontinuity in which results from a lump of metal being squeezed over into
the surface of the material.
If beyond acceptable limits, must be removed and repaired or discarded.
POROSITY

• Single Pore
• Uniformly Scattered
• Cluster
• Linear
• Piping
SINGLE PORE

• Separated by at least their own diameter along the

axis of the weld
UNIFORMLY SCATTERED
POROSITY

• Typically judged by diameter and proximity to a

start or stop
• often caused by low amperage or short arc gap or
an unshielded weld start
CLUSTER POROSITY

• Typically viewed as a single large discontinuity

LINEAR POROSITY

• being linear greatly affects the severity of this

discontinuity
PIPING POROSITY

• Generally has special allowable limits

POROSITY

• preheat will help eliminate

• may need an electrode with more deoxidizers
• Use run-on/run-off taps
• restart on top of previous weld and grind off lump
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE
MICROSTRUCTURE
ALTERATION
• add drawing of HAZ of groove weld with leaders to:
• grain refinement
• grain growth
• hardened areas
• softened areas
• precipitate suseptable areas.
SIZE OR DIMENSION

• If it renders the part unusable, it is a defect.

• If it is outside the allowable limit, it renders the part
unusable.
• Things don’t have to be perfect, just within the
acceptable tolerance. Working to perfection is too
time consuming and costly
HAMMER MARKS

• Stress risers
• Unsightly
• Unnecessary
REPAIR TECHNIQUES

• May involve:
• different process
• different procedure
• different preheat/PWHT
• different electrode
• smaller electrode
 Surface breaking porosity
Shrinkage cavity*
  Coarse cluster porosity
Fine cluster porosity
Blow hole > 1.6 mm Ø

Hollow root bead An isolated internal porosity

 
 Surface breaking solid inclusion
Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of inter-run fusion* Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of sidewall fusion

Internal solid inclusion Solid inclusions caused by

undercut in the previous weld run
 Lack of sidewall fusion &
incompletely filled grove*
Overlap (Causing cold laps)

Lack of inter-run fusion Lack of sidewall fusion

Lack of root fusion

 Spatter An Incompletely filled groove

Lack of root fusion

Bulbous, or irregular contour
Arc Strikes
Poor toe blend

Incomplete root penetration

*
 Shrinkage grooves

Crater pipe Root concavity

 

*
Root oxidation in Stainless Steel
Excess penetration, and burn through
Root Run or “Hot pass” undercut

Parent metal, surface undercut

 

Weld metal, surface undercut*

 
Weld metal, surface undercut Parent metal, “top toe” undercut*
 Any surface damage caused by:
Grinding
Hammering/chisel marks
Slag chipping hammer marks
Torn cleats (Hammered off attachments)
Arc strikes

All of the above may cause serious weakness to the weld area*
 Linear
Excess weld metal height
Lowest plate to highest point

3 mm
Linear misalignment measured in mm

Angular

15

Angular misalignment measured in degrees*

EN
D