Mitosis
Aarifa Hoosein-Riyasat
Objectives of this lesson
Students will understand the importance of maintaining species chromosome
number.
Students will describe the process of mitosis.
Students will understand the role of mitosis in growth.
Students will explain the role of mitosis in asexual reproduction.
Students will explain why asexual reproduction gives rise to genetically
identical offspring.
What is Mitosis?
Mitosis, a process of cell duplication, or
reproduction, during which one cell gives rise
to two genetically identical daughter cells.
Strictly applied, the term mitosis is used to
describe the duplication and distribution of
chromosomes, the structures that carry the
genetic information.
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the
mother) divides to produce two new cells (the daughters)
that are genetically identical to itself. In the context of the
cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process in which
the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets of
chromosomes.
The great majority of the cell divisions that happen in your
body involve mitosis. During development and growth,
mitosis populates an organism’s body with cells, and
throughout an organism’s life, it replaces old, worn-out cells
with new ones. For single-celled eukaryotes like yeast,
mitotic divisions are actually a form of reproduction, adding
new individuals to the population
In all of these cases, the “goal” of mitosis is to make sure
that each daughter cell gets a perfect, full set of
chromosomes. Cells with too few or too many chromosomes
usually don’t function well: they may not survive, or they
may even cause cancer. So, when cells undergo mitosis, they
don’t just divide their DNA at random and toss it into piles
for the two daughter cells. Instead, they split up their
duplicated chromosomes in a carefully organized series of
steps.
Phases of Mitosis
Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Some textbooks list five, breaking
prophase into an early phase (called prophase) and a late
phase (called prometaphase). These phases occur in strict
sequential order, and cytokinesis - the process of dividing
the cell contents to make two new cells - starts in anaphase
or telophase.
Phases of Mitosis
Phases of Mitosis
You can remember the order of the phases with the
famous mnemonic: [Please] Pee on the MAT. But
don’t get too hung up on names – what’s most
important to understand is what’s happening at
each stage, and why it’s important for the division
of the chromosomes.
Phases of Mitosis
Let’s start by looking at a cell right before it begins
mitosis. This cell is in interphase (late G2 phase) and has
already copied its DNA, so the chromosomes in the
nucleus each consist of two connected copies, called
sister chromatids. You can’t see the chromosomes very
clearly at this point, because they are still in their long,
stringy, decondensed form.
This animal cell has also made a copy of its centrosome,
an organelle that will play a key role in orchestrating
mitosis, so there are two centrosomes. (Plant cells
generally don’t have centrosomes with centrioles, but
have a different type of microtubule organizing center
that plays a similar role.)
Phases of Mitosis
In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some
structures and build others up, setting the stage for
division of the chromosomes.
•The chromosomes start to condense (making them
easier to pull apart later on).
•The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a
structure made of microtubules, strong fibers that are
part of the cell’s “skeleton.” Its job is to organize the
chromosomes and move them around during mitosis. The
spindle grows between the centrosomes as they move
apart.
•The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus
where ribosomes are made, disappears. This is a sign
that the nucleus is getting ready to break down.
Phases of Mitosis
In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase),
the mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the
chromosomes.
•The chromosomes finish condensing, so they are very
compact.
•The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the
chromosomes.
•The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the
microtubules start to “capture” chromosomes.
Phases of Mitosis
Microtubules can bind to chromosomes at the
kinetochore, a patch of protein found on the
centromere of each sister chromatid. (Centromeres are
the regions of DNA where the sister chromatids are most
tightly connected.)
Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called
kinetochore microtubules. Microtubules that don’t bind
to kinetochores can grab on to microtubules from the
opposite pole, stabilizing the spindle. More microtubules
extend from each centrosome towards the edge of the
cell, forming a structure called the aster.
Phases of Mitosis
In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the
chromosomes and lined them up at the middle of the
cell, ready to divide.
•All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not
a physical structure, just a term for the plane where the
chromosomes line up).
•At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome
should be attached to microtubules from opposite
spindle poles.
Phases of Mitosis
Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make
sure that all the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate
with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules.
This is called the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure that
the sister chromatids will split evenly between the two
daughter cells when they separate in the next step. If a
chromosome is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will
halt division until the problem is fixed.
Phases of Mitosis
In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each
other and are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
•The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids
together is broken down, allowing them to separate.
Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes of
each pair are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
•Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and
push apart, separating the poles and making the cell
longer.
All of these processes are driven by motor proteins,
molecular machines that can “walk” along microtubule
tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry
chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.
Phases of Mitosis
In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it
starts to re-establish its normal structures as cytokinesis
(division of the cell contents) takes place.
•The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building
blocks.
•Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes.
Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear.
•The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to
their “stringy” form.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells,
overlaps with the final stages of mitosis. It may start in either
anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and finishes shortly
after telophase.
In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like
a coin purse with a drawstring. The “drawstring” is a band of
filaments made of a protein called actin, and the pinch crease is
known as the cleavage furrow. Plant cells can’t be divided like this
because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure
called the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it
into two daughter cells separated by a new wall.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells,
each with a complete set of chromosomes identical to
those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can now
begin their own cellular “lives,” and – depending on what
they decide to be when they grow up – may undergo
mitosis themselves, repeating the cycle.
Mitosis is absolutely essential to life because
it provides new cells for growth and for
replacement of worn-out cells. Mitosis may
take minutes or hours, depending upon the
kind of cells and species of organisms. It is
influenced by time of day, temperature, and
chemicals.
Events during Mitosis-Summary
Interphase: Cells may appear inactive during this
stage, but they are quite the opposite. This is the
longest period of the complete cell cycle during
which DNA replicates, the centrioles divide, and
proteins are actively produced. For a complete
description of the events during Interphase, read
about the Cell Cycle.
Prophase: During this first mitotic stage, the nucleolus fades and
chromatin (replicated DNA and associated proteins) condenses into
chromosomes. Each replicated chromosome comprises two chromatids,
both with the same genetic information. Microtubules of the
cytoskeleton, responsible for cell shape, motility and attachment to
other cells during interphase, disassemble. And the building blocks of
these microtubules are used to grow the mitotic spindle from the
region of the centrosomes.
Prometaphase: In this stage the nuclear envelope breaks down so there
is no longer a recognizable nucleus. Some mitotic spindle fibers
elongate from the centrosomes and attach to kinetochores, protein
bundles at the centromere region on the chromosomes where sister
chromatids are joined. Other spindle fibers elongate but instead of
attaching to chromosomes, overlap each other at the cell center.
Metaphase: Tension applied by the spindle fibers aligns all
chromosomes in one plane at the center of the cell.
Anaphase: Spindle fibers shorten, the kinetochores
separate, and the chromatids (daughter chromosomes) are
pulled apart and begin moving to the cell poles.
Telophase: The daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles
and the spindle fibers that have pulled them apart
disappear.
Cytokinesis: The spindle fibers not attached to
chromosomes begin breaking down until only that portion
of overlap is left. It is in this region that a contractile ring
cleaves the cell into two daughter cells. Microtubules then
reorganize into a new cytoskeleton for the return to
interphase.
Cancer cells reproduce relatively quickly in culture. In the
Cancer Cell CAM compare the length of time these cells
spend in interphase to that for mitosis to occur.
Activity
Activity
