BONGA UNIVERSITY

College Of Engineering And Technology

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering Material
(MEng2091)
CHAPTER 3
Imperfections in Solids

By: Mulisa Jiregna 1

 INTRODUCTION
 Atoms are orderly arranged without any disruptions in ideal
solids.
 However, such an idealized solid does not exist; all contain
large numbers of various defects or imperfections.
 Crystalline defect is meant a lattice irregularity having one or
more of its dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter.
 According to geometry or dimensionality of the defect
crystalline imperfections is classified into Several different
imperfections. Those are:-
1. Point defects (those associated with one or two
atomic positions)
2. Linear defects (or one-dimensional)
3. Surface defects (two dimensional)
4. Volume defects (three dimensional
 POINT DEFECTS
 Point defects, as the name implies, are imperfect point-like
regions in the crystal.
 Typical size of a point defect is about 1-2 atomic diameters.
 There is different point defects.
Those are Vacancy, self-interstitials and An impurity atom at
the regular or interstitial position in the lattice.
1. Vacancy:
 It is a vacant lattice position from where the atom is missing.
 All crystalline solids contain vacancies and, in fact, it is not
possible to create such a material that is free of these defects.
 The existence of vacancies is explained using principles of
thermodynamics; in essence, the presence of vacancies
increases the entropy (i.e., the randomness) of the crystal.
 The equilibrium number of vacancies (Nυ) for a given quantity
of material depends on and increases with temperature
according to:

 Where
N= total number of atomic sites (most commonly per cubic meter),
Qυ= is the energy required for the formation of a vacancy (J/mol or eV/atom),
T = absolute temperature in kelvin(Absolute temperature in kelvins (K) is equal to
°C+273) and
k =is the gas or Boltzmann’s constant(1.3810-23J/atom-K or 8.6210-5 eV/atom-K),
depending on the units of Qυ
Example
Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter for
copper at 1000°C. The energy for vacancy formation is 0.9
eV/atom; the atomic weight and density (at 1000°C) for copper are
63.5 g/mol and 8.40 g/cm3, respectively
Solution
First determine the value of N the number of atomic sites per cubic
meter for copper from its atomic weight ACu, its density ρ, and
Avogadro’s number NA, according to

Thus, the number of vacancies at 1000°C (1273 K) is equal to

2. Self-interstitials
 It is an atom that occupies a
place outside the normal
lattice position.
 An atom trapped in the
interstitial point (a point
intermediate between regular
lattice points) is called an
interstitial atom.
 The formation of this defect
is not highly probable, and it
exists in very small
concentrations, which are
significantly lower than for
vacancies. Figure 3.1 Two-dimensional
representations of a vacancy and a
self-interstitial
3. Impurities in solids
 A pure metal consisting of only one type of atom just isn’t
possible; impurity or foreign atoms will always be present, and
some will exist as crystalline point defects.
 Most familiar metals are not highly pure; rather, they are alloys,
in which impurity atoms have been added intentionally to
impart specific characteristics to the material. Alloying is used
in metals to improve mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance.
 The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the
formation of a solid solution and/or a new second phase,
depending on the kinds of impurity, their concentrations, and
the temperature of the alloy.
 With regard to alloys, solute and solvent are terms that are
commonly employed.
  Solvent is an element or compound that is present in the
greatest amount. Also called host atoms.
 Solute is an element or compound present in a minor
concentration.
 Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which
there are two types: substitutional and interstitial.
A. Substitutional: - solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute
for the host atoms. The following features determines the
degree to which the former dissolves in the latter.
1. Atomic size factor: solute may be accommodated when the
difference in atomic radii between the two atom is less than
about15%. Otherwise the solute atoms will create
substantial lattice distortions and a new phase will form.
2. Crystal structure: crystal structures for metals of both atom
types must be the same.
 3. Electronegativity :The more electropositive element and the
more electronegative element will form an intermetallic
compound instead of a substitutional solid solution.
4. Valences: metal will have more of a tendency to dissolve
another metal of higher valence than one of a lower
valence. impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices among
B. Interstitial:-
the host atoms.
 For metallic materials that have relatively high atomic
packing factors, these interstitial positions are relatively
small.
 Normally, the maximum allowable concentration of
interstitial impurity atoms is low (less than 10%).
 Even very small impurity atoms are ordinarily larger than
the interstitial sites, and as a consequence they introduce
some lattice strains on the adjacent host atoms.
Figure 3.2 Two-dimensional schematic representations of substitutional
and interstitial impurity atoms
 Miscellaneous Imperfections
LINEAR DEFECTS:-
 A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around
which some of the atoms are misaligned.
 They are abrupt changes in the regular ordering of atoms along
a line (dislocation line) in the solid.
 They occur in high densities and strongly influence the
mechanical properties of material.
 They are characterized by the Burgers vector (b), whose
direction and magnitude can be determined by constructing a
loop around the disrupted region and noticing the extra inter-
atomic spacing needed to close the loop.
 The Burgers vector in metals points in a close packed lattice
direction. It is unique to a dislocation.
 Dislocations occur when an extra incomplete plane is inserted.
The dislocation line is at the end of the plane.
 Dislocations can be best understood by referring to two limiting
cases - Edge dislocation and Screw dislocation.
1. Edge dislocation:
 It is a linear defect that centers around the line that is defined
along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms.
 It is characterized by a Burger’s vector that is perpendicular to
the dislocation line.
 It may be described as an edge of an extra plane of atoms within
a crystal structure. Thus regions of compression and tension are
associated with an edge dislocation.
 Because of extra incomplete plane of atoms, the atoms above
the dislocation line are squeezed together and are in state of
compression whereas atoms below are pulled apart and
experience tensile stresses.
 The magnitude of this distortion decreases with distance away
from the dislocation line.
 It is considered positive when compressive stresses present
above the dislocation line, and is represented by ┴.
 If the stress state is opposite i.e. compressive stresses exist
below the dislocation line, it is considered as negative edge
dislocation, and represented by ┬.

Figure 3.3 The atom positions

around an edge dislocation;
extra half-plane of atoms
shown in perspective.
 2. Screw dislocation
 Its dislocation line parallel to the Burger’s vector.
 It is formed by a shear stress that is applied to produce the
distortion.
 The atomic distortion associated with a screw dislocation is also
linear along a dislocation line.
 The screw dislocation derives its name from the spiral or helical
path or ramp that is traced around the dislocation line by the
atomic planes of atoms. Sometimes the symbol ‘’is used to
designate a screw dislocation.
 Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably
neither pure edge nor pure screw, but exhibit components of
both types; these are termed mixed dislocations.
Figure 3.4 (a) A screw dislocation within a crystal. (b) The screw
dislocation in (a) as viewed from above. The dislocation line
extends along line AB.
 Edge

Screw
Figure 3.5 (a) Schematic representation of a dislocation that has edge, screw,
and mixed character. (b) Top view, where open circles denote atom positions
above the slip plane. Solid circles, atom positions below. At point A, the
dislocation is pure screw, while at point B, it is pure edge. For regions in
between where there is curvature in the dislocation line, the character is mixed
edge and screw.
 INTERFACIAL (SURFACE) DEFECTS

 It can be defined as boundaries that have two dimensional

imperfections in crystalline solids, and have different crystal
structures and/or crystallographic orientations on either side of
them.
 Surface defects are the boundaries, or planes, that separate a
material into regions, each region having the same crystal
structure but different orientations
 These imperfections include external surfaces, grain
boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults, and phase
boundaries.
External Surfaces
 The exterior dimensions of the material represent surfaces at
which the crystal abruptly ends.
 Each atom at the surface no longer has the proper coordination
number and atomic bonding is disrupted.
 The exterior surface may also be very rough, may contain tiny
notches, and may be much more reactive than the bulk of the
material.
Grain boundaries
 A grain is a crystalline portion of the material within which the
arrangement of the atoms is nearly identical. However, the
orientation of the atom arrangement, or crystal structure, is
different for each adjoining grain.
 Three grains are shown schematically in Figure 3.6(a); the
arrangement of atoms in each grain is identical but the grains
are oriented differently.
 A grain boundary, the surface that separates the individual
grains, is a narrow zone in which the atoms are not properly
spaced.

Figure 3.6
Twin Boundaries
 It is a plane across which there is a special mirror image mis-
orientation of the crystal structure.
 Twins can be produced when a shear force, acting along the
twin boundary, causes the atoms to shift out of position.
 Twinning occurs during deformation or heat treatment of
certain metals or alloys.
 The twin boundaries interfere with the slip process and increase
the strength of the metal.
 Movement of twin boundaries can also cause a metal to
deform.
Figure 3.7 Application of a stress to the perfect crystal (a)
may cause a displacement of the atoms, (b) causing the
formation of a twin.
Miscellaneous Interfacial Defects

1. Stacking Faults: represent an error in the stacking sequence of

close-packed planes.
2. Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials across which
there is a sudden change in physical and/or chemical
characteristics
3. For ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, the boundary
that separates regions having different directions of
magnetization is termed a domain wall.
 BULK OR VOLUME DEFECTS

 Volume defects as name suggests are defects in 3-dimensions.

 These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions and other
phases.
 These defects are normally introduced during processing and
fabrication steps.
 All these defects are capable of acting as stress raisers, and thus
deleterious to parent metal’s mechanical behavior.
 However, in some cases foreign particles are added
purposefully to strengthen the parent material.
 ATOMIC VIBRATIONS
 Atomic vibrations occur, even at zero temperature (a quantum
mechanical effect) and increase in amplitude with temperature.
 In fact, the temperature of a solid is really just a measure of
average vibrational activity of atoms and molecules.
 Vibrations displace transiently atoms from their regular lattice
site, which destroys the perfect periodicity.
 In a sense, these atomic vibrations may be thought of as
imperfections or defects.
 Many properties and processes in solids are manifestations of
this vibrational atomic motion. For example: melting occurs
once the atomic bonds are overcome by vigorous vibrations.
 DIFFUSION

 Diffusion can be defined as the mass flow process in which

atoms change their positions relative to neighbours in a given
phase under the influence of thermal and a gradient.
 The gradient can be a compositional gradient, an electric or
magnetic gradient, or stress gradient.
 If this movement is from one element to another e.g. Cu to Ni,
then it is termed inter-diffusion.
 If the movement is within similar atoms as in pure metals, it is
termed self-diffusion.
Figure 3.8 (a) A copper–nickel diffusion couple after a high-temperature
heat treatment, showing the alloyed diffusion zone. (b) Schematic
representations of Cu (red circles) and Ni (blue circles) atom locations
within the couple.
Diffusion Mechanism
 Diffusion of atoms involves movement in steps from one lattice
site to the another. An empty adjacent site and breaking of
bonds with the neighbour atoms are the two necessary
conditions for this.
1. Vacancy Diffusion
 This mechanism involves movement of atoms from a regular
lattice site to an adjacent vacancy. Since vacancy and atoms
exchange position, the vacancy flux is in the opposite direction.

Figure 3.9 Schematic representations of vacancy diffusion

2. Interstitial Diffusion
 This mechanism involves migration of atoms from one
interstitial site to a neighbouring empty interstitial site.
 This mechanism is more prevalent for impurity atoms such as
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen which are small enough to
fit in to an interstitial position.
 For substitutional diffusion atoms exchange their places directly
or along a ring (ring diffusion mechanism)

Figure 3.10 Schematic representations of vacancy diffusion

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