Chapter 7:

Introduction to SQL

Modern Database Management

9th Edition
Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Mary B. Prescott,
Heikki Topi

© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.  Publishing as Prentice Hall 1

 Objectives
 Definition of terms
 Interpret history and role of SQL
 Define a database using SQL data
definition language
 Write single table queries using SQL
 Establish referential integrity using SQL
 Discuss SQL:1999 and SQL:200n standards

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 SQL Overview
 Structured Query Language

 The standard for relational database

management systems (RDBMS)

 RDBMS: A database management system that

manages data as a collection of tables in
which all relationships are represented by
common values in related tables

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 History of SQL
 1970–E. Codd develops relational database concept
 1974-1979–System R with Sequel (later SQL)
created at IBM Research Lab
 1979–Oracle markets first relational DB with SQL
 1986–ANSI SQL standard released
 1989, 1992, 1999, 2003–Major ANSI standard
updates
 Current–SQL is supported by most major database
vendors

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 Purpose of SQL Standard
 Specify syntax/semantics for data definition
and manipulation
 Define data structures
 Enable portability
 Specify minimal (level 1) and complete (level
2) standards
 Allow for later growth/enhancement to
standard

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 Benefits of a Standardized
Relational Language
 Reduced training costs
 Productivity
 Application portability
 Application longevity
 Reduced dependence on a single vendor
 Cross-system communication

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 SQL Environment
 Catalog
 A set of schemas that constitute the description of a database
 Schema
 The structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a user (base
tables, views, constraints)
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Commands that define a database, including creating, altering, and dropping
tables and establishing constraints
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Commands that maintain and query a database
 Data Control Language (DCL)
 Commands that control a database, including administering privileges and
committing data

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 Figure 7-1
A simplified schematic of a typical SQL environment, as
described by the SQL: 200n standard

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 Some SQL Data types
(Table 7-2)

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 Figure 7-4
DDL, DML, DCL, and the database development process

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 SQL Database Definition
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Major CREATE statements:
 CREATE SCHEMA–defines a portion of the
database owned by a particular user
 CREATE TABLE–defines a table and its columns
 CREATE VIEW–defines a logical table from one or
more views
 Other CREATE statements: CHARACTER SET,
COLLATION, TRANSLATION, ASSERTION,
DOMAIN

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 Table Creation Steps in table creation:
1. Identify data types for
Figure 7-5 General syntax for CREATE TABLE
attributes
2. Identify columns that can
and cannot be null
3. Identify columns that
must be unique
(candidate keys)
4. Identify primary key–
foreign key mates
5. Determine default values
6. Identify constraints on
columns (domain
specifications)
7. Create the table and
Chapter 7 associated indexes
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 The following slides create tables for
this enterprise data model

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Figure 7-6 SQL database definition commands for Pine Valley Furniture

Overall table
definitions

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 Defining attributes and their data types

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 Non-nullable specification

Primary keys
can never have
NULL values

Identifying primary key

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 Non-nullable specifications

Primary key

Some primary keys are composite–

composed of multiple attributes

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 Controlling the values in attributes

Default value

Domain constraint

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Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships

Primary key of
parent table

Foreign key of
dependent table

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 Data Integrity Controls
 Referential integrity–constraint that
ensures that foreign key values of a
table must match primary key values of
a related table in 1:M relationships
 Restricting:
 Deletes of primary records
 Updates of primary records
 Inserts of dependent records

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Figure 7-7 Ensuring data integrity through updates

Relational
integrity is
enforced via
the primary-
key to foreign-
key match

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 Changing and Removing Tables
 ALTER TABLE statement allows you to
change column specifications:
 ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER_T ADD (TYPE
VARCHAR(2))
 DROP TABLE statement allows you to
remove tables from your schema:
 DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T

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 Schema Definition
 Control processing/storage efficiency:
 Choice of indexes
 File organizations for base tables
 File organizations for indexes
 Data clustering
 Statistics maintenance
 Creating indexes
 Speed up random/sequential access to base table data
 Example
 CREATE INDEX NAME_IDX ON CUSTOMER_T(CUSTOMER_NAME)
 This makes an index for the CUSTOMER_NAME field of the
CUSTOMER_T table

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 Insert Statement
 Adds data to a table
 Inserting into a table
 INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES (001, ‘Contemporary
Casuals’, ‘1355 S. Himes Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’, ‘FL’, 32601);
 Inserting a record that has some null attributes
requires identifying the fields that actually get data
 INSERT INTO PRODUCT_T (PRODUCT_ID,
PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION,PRODUCT_FINISH, STANDARD_PRICE,
PRODUCT_ON_HAND) VALUES (1, ‘End Table’, ‘Cherry’, 175, 8);
 Inserting from another table
 INSERT INTO CA_CUSTOMER_T SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE
STATE = ‘CA’;

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 Creating Tables with Identity Columns
New with SQL:2003

Inserting into a table does not require explicit customer ID entry or

field list

INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES ( ‘Contemporary Casuals’,

‘1355 S. Himes Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’, ‘FL’, 32601);

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 Delete Statement
 Removes rows from a table
 Delete certain rows
 DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE STATE
= ‘HI’;
 Delete all rows
 DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;

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 Update Statement
 Modifies data in existing rows

 UPDATE PRODUCT_T SET UNIT_PRICE = 775

WHERE PRODUCT_ID = 7;

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 Merge Statement

Makes it easier to update a table…allows combination of Insert and

Update in one statement

Useful for updating master tables with new data

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 SELECT Statement
 Used for queries on single or multiple tables
 Clauses of the SELECT statement:
 SELECT
 List the columns (and expressions) that should be returned from the query
 FROM
 Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained
 WHERE
 Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result
 GROUP BY
 Indicate categorization of results
 HAVING
 Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be included
 ORDER BY
 Sorts the result according to specified criteria

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Figure 7-10
SQL statement
processing
order (adapted
from van der
Lans, p.100)

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 SELECT Example
 Find products with standard price less than
$275

SELECT PRODUCT_NAME, STANDARD_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT_V
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 275;

Table 7-3: Comparison Operators in SQL

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 SELECT Example Using Alias
 Alias is an alternative column or table name

SELECT [Link] AS NAME,

CUST.CUSTOMER_ADDRESS
FROM CUSTOMER_V CUST
WHERE NAME = ‘Home Furnishings’;

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 SELECT Example
Using a Function
 Using the COUNT aggregate function to find
totals

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDER_LINE_V

WHERE ORDER_ID = 1004;

Note: with aggregate functions you can’t have

single-valued columns included in the SELECT
clause

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SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
 AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing
conditions in WHERE clause

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, PRODUCT_FINISH,

STANDARD_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_V
WHERE (PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Desk’
OR PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Table’)
AND STANDARD_PRICE > 300;
Note: the LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using wildcards.
For example, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’ indicates that all strings that
have any number of characters preceding the word “Desk” will be allowed
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Venn Diagram from Previous Query

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 SELECT Example –
Sorting Results with the ORDER BY Clause
 Sort the results first by STATE, and within a
state by CUSTOMER_NAME

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME, CITY, STATE

FROM CUSTOMER_V
WHERE STATE IN (‘FL’, ‘TX’, ‘CA’, ‘HI’)
ORDER BY STATE, CUSTOMER_NAME;
Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include rows whose
STATE value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It is more efficient than separate
OR conditions

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 SELECT Example–
Categorizing Results Using the GROUP BY Clause
 For use with aggregate functions
 Scalar aggregate: single value returned from SQL query with
aggregate function
 Vector aggregate: multiple values returned from SQL query with
aggregate function (via GROUP BY)

SELECT CUSTOMER_STATE, COUNT(CUSTOMER_STATE)

FROM CUSTOMER_V
GROUP BY CUSTOMER_STATE;

Note: you can use single-value fields with aggregate

functions if they are included in the GROUP BY clause

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 SELECT Example–
Qualifying Results by Categories
Using the HAVING Clause
 For use with GROUP BY

SELECT CUSTOMER_STATE, COUNT(CUSTOMER_STATE)

FROM CUSTOMER_V
GROUP BY CUSTOMER_STATE
HAVING COUNT(CUSTOMER_STATE) > 1;

Like a WHERE clause, but it operates on groups (categories), not on

individual rows. Here, only those groups with total numbers greater than
1 will be included in final result

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 Using and Defining Views
 Views provide users controlled access to tables
 Base Table–table containing the raw data
 Dynamic View
 A “virtual table” created dynamically upon request by a user
 No data actually stored; instead data from base table made available
to user
 Based on SQL SELECT statement on base tables or other views
 Materialized View
 Copy or replication of data
 Data actually stored
 Must be refreshed periodically to match the corresponding base tables

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 Sample CREATE VIEW
CREATE VIEW EXPENSIVE_STUFF_V AS
SELECT PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_NAME, UNIT_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_T
WHERE UNIT_PRICE >300
WITH CHECK_OPTION;

View has a name

View is based on a SELECT statement
CHECK_OPTION works only for
updateable views and prevents updates
that would create rows not included in
the view
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 Advantages of Views
 Simplify query commands
 Assist with data security (but don't rely on views
for security, there are more important security
measures)
 Enhance programming productivity
 Contain most current base table data
 Use little storage space
 Provide customized view for user
 Establish physical data independence

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 Disadvantages of Views
 Use processing time each time view is
referenced
 May or may not be directly updateable

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