Magnetic Circuits

Introduction

• Earlier we noted that capacitors store energy by

producing an electric field within a piece of
dielectric material
• Inductors also store energy, in this case it is
stored within a magnetic field
• In order to understand inductors, and related
components such as transformers, we need first
to look at electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism
• A wire carrying a
current I causes a
magnetomotive
force (m.m.f) F
– The driving force
that produces a
magnetic field
– Symbol, F
– Definition, F = NI
– Units, Ampere-
turns, (A-t)
• The magnitude of the field is defined by the
magnetic field strength, H , where
I I r
H 
l 2r

where l is the length of the magnetic circuit H

• H is tangential along a flux line.

 I I
H  r
l 2r
• Example H

A straight wire carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnetic field

strength H at a distance of 100mm from the wire?
Magnetic circuit is circular. r = 100mm, so path = 2r = 0.628m
I 5
H   7.96 A /m
l 0.628
• The magnetic field produces a magnetic flux, 
– flux has units of weber (Wb)
• Strength of the flux at a particular location is measured in
term of the magnetic flux density, B
– flux density has units of tesla (T) (equivalent to 1 Wb/m 2)
• Flux density at a point is determined by the field strength
and the material present
B  μH B  μ0 μ r H
or
where  is the permeability of the material, r is the relative permeability and 0 is
the permeability of free space
μ0  4 10 7Wb / Am
• Adding a ferromagnetic ring around a wire will
increase the flux by several orders of magnitude
– since r for ferromagnetic materials is 1000 or more
• When a current-carrying
wire is formed into a coil
the magnetic field is
concentrated
• For a coil of N turns the
m.m.f. (F) is given by
F  IN

and the fieldIN

strength
F
is
H   AT/m
l l
• The magnetic flux produced is determined by the
permeability of the material present
– a ferromagnetic material will increase the flux
density
 Magnetic Flux 

• Magnetic Flux 
• Unit for flux is weber
• The definition of 1 weber is the amount of flux that
can produce an induced voltage of 1 V in a one turn
coil if the flux reduce to zero with uniform rate
 Magnetic Flux 

• You are given a loop of wire

• The wire is in a uniform
magnetic field B
• The loop has an area A
• The flux is defined as
– ΦB = BA = B A cos θ
• θ is the angle between B and
the normal to the plane
 Magnetic Flux density B

• Magnetic Flux density B

• The concentration of the lines of force in a magnetic circuit
• Unit for magnetic flux density is Tesla
• The definition of 1 tesla is the flux density that can
produce a force of 1 Newton per meter acting upon a
conductor carrying 1 ampere of current
– Symbol, B
– Definition, B = Φ/A ( for uniform flux density normal to
aera A

– Units, (Wb/m2), or T (Tesla) F

B  μH  μ T
l
Both B and H are vectors and are related
by the constants µo , µr while ϕ is a
scalar quantity
For single turns For N turns
• F = NI
I I IN F
H  A/m H   AT/m
l 2r l l
B  H  μ0 μr H Tesla F
B  μH  μ T
μ0  4 10 7Wb / Am l

ΦB = BA = B A cos θ
 Reluctance

• In a resistive circuit, the resistance is a measure of how

the circuit opposes the flow of electricity
• In a magnetic circuit, the reluctance, R is a measure of
how the circuit opposes the flow of magnetic flux
• In a resistive circuit R = V/I
R F
• In a magnetic circuit Φ

– the units of reluctance are amperes per weber (A/ Wb)

 Reluctance
• If the flux in the core geometry is normal to the
cross-sectional area, the total flux established
around the core is given by
F F
  AB    PF
l A R
where
l
R AT/wb
A
 reluctance of the magnetic circuit
and
1
P  permeance of the magnetic circuit
R
OHM’S LAW FOR MAGNETIC
CIRCUITS
 Example 1
A coils of 200 turns is uniformly wound around a wooden ring with a
mean circumference of 600 mm and area of cross-section of 500
mm2. If the current flowing into the coil is 4 A, Calculate (a) the
magnetic field strength , (b) flux density dan (c) total flux

turns
N = 200 turns
l = 600 x 10-3 m
A = 500 x 10-6 m2
I = 4A

(a) H = NI/l = 200 x 4 / 600 x 10-3 = 1333 A

(b) B = oH = 4 x 10-7 x 1333 = 0.001675 T = 1675 T
(c) Total Flux  = BA = 1675 x 10-6 x 500 x 10-6
= 0.8375 Wb
 Reluctance ( S )
Ohm‘s law I = V/R [A]
Where I =current; V=voltage and R=resistance
And the resistance can be relate to physical parameters as R
=  l /A ohm
Where =resistivity [ohm-meter], l= length in meter and A=area of
cross-section [meter square]
Analogy to the ohm‘s law
V=NI=H l I=and R=S


Hl
 weber where S 

 ampere / weber 
S r o A
 Example 2
A mild steel ring, having a cross-section area of 500 mm2 and a
mean circumference of 400 mm is wound uniformly by a coil of
200 turns. Calculate(a) reluctance of the ring and (b) a current
required to produce a flux of 800 Wb in the ring.
(a)  800  10 6
B  6
 1.6T turns
A 500  10
Dari graf r/B, pada B = 1.6; r
= 380
 0.4
S 
 r  o A 380  4 107  5 104

 1.667 10 [ A / Wb] 6

(b) H
 H  S
S

6
mmf H  800 10 1.667 10  1342[ A]  NI
6

1342 1342
I    6.7[ A]
N 200
 Magnetic circuit with different materials
l1 l2
SA  and SB 
1a1  2a 2

l1 l2
S  SA  SB  
1a1  2a 2
For A: area of cross-section = a1
mean length = l1
absolute permeability = 1
ForB: area of cross-section = a2
mean length = l2
absolute permeability = 2
 Mmf for many materials in series
total mmf = HAlA + HBlB
HA =magnetic strength in material A
lA=mean length of material A
HB =magnetic strength in material B
lB=mean length of material B
In general
(m.m.f) = Hl
 Example 3
A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series, each of uniform
cross-section area(c.s.a). They are :
(a)A length of 80mm and c.s.a 50 mm2;
(b)A length of 60mm and c.s.a 90mm2;
(c)An airgap of length 0.5mm and c.s.a 150 mm2.
A coil of 4000 turns is wound on part (b), and the flux density in
the airgap is 0.3T. Assuming that all the flux passes through the
given circuit, and that the relative permeability r is 1300, estimate
the coil current to produce such a flux density.

4 4
  BC AC  0.3  1.5  10  0.45 10 Wb
 Mmf = S = H l = N I

a 0.45 10 4  80 10 3

Material a S a     44.1At
 r  o Aa 1300  4 10  50 10
7 6

b 0.45 10 4  60 10 3

Material b S b     18.4 At
 r o Ab 1300  4 10  90 10
7 6

c 0.45 10 4  0.5 10 3

airgap S c     119 .3 At
 r  o Ac 1300  4 10 150 10
7 6

Total mmf NI  S a  Sb  S c  44.1  18.4  119.3  181.8 At

and 181.8
I  45.4 10 3 A  45.4mA
4000
 Leakages and fringing of flux
leakage

fringing

Leakages and fringing of

Magnetic circuit with air-
flux
gap
Some fluxes are leakage via paths a, b and c . Path d is
shown to be expanded due to fringing. Thus the usable
flux is less than the total flux produced, hence
total flux
Leakage factor 
usable flux
 Example 4

A magnetic circuit as in Figure is made

from a laminated steel. The breadth of
the steel core is 40 mm and the depth is
50 mm, 8% of it is an insulator between
the laminatings. The length and the area
of the airgap are 2 mm and 2500 mm2
respectively. A coil is wound 800 turns.
If the leakage factor is 1.2, calculate the
current required to magnetize the steel
core in order to produce flux of 0.0025
Wb across the airgap.
  2.5  10 3
Ba   6
 1T
Aa 2500 10
Ba 1
Ha    796000[ AT / m]
o 4 10 7

mmf  H  796000  0.002  1594[ AT ]

Total flux   T  flux in airgap  leakage factor

 0.0025 1.2  0.003Wb
92% of the depth is laminated steel, thus the area of cross section
is

 AS = 40 x 50 x 0.92 = 1840 mm2=0.00184m

 T 3  10 3
BS    1.63T
AS 0.00184

From the B-H graph, at B=1.63T, H=4000AT/m

 mmf in the steel core = Hl = 4000 x 0.6 = 2400 AT

Total mmf. = 1592 + 2400 = 3992 AT

 NI = 3992

I = 3992/800 = 5 A
 D

Magnetic circuit applying Analogy to electrical

voltage law circuit

applying voltage Kirchoff’s law

Mmf in loop C = NI = HLlL + HMlM
outside loop NI= HLlL + HNlN
And in loop D 0 = HMlM + HNlN
In general (m.m.f) = Hl
 P
IL IM IN

L M N

At node P we can also applying current Kirchoff’s law

L = M + N

Or L - M - N = 0
In general:  = 0
 Example 5
A magnetic circuit made of silicon steel is arranged as in the
Figure. The center limb has a cross-section area of 800mm2 and
each of the side limbs has a cross-sectional area of 500mm 2.
Calculate the m.m.f required to produce a flux of 1mWb in the
center limb, assuming the magnetic leakage to be negligible.

340 1mm 340

mm 150 mm
mm
  110 3
  B A B  6
 1.25T
A 800  10

Looking at graph at B=1.25T r =34000

Apply voltage law in loops A and B 340

mm 150
1mm 340
mm

S2 
150  103
 4388
A mm
B
34000  4 10 7  800 10 6

m.m. f   A S1    A   B  S 2  S a 
1 340  10 3
S1    15915
 r  o A1 34000  4  10  500  10
7 6

3
110
Sa   994718
4  10  800 10
7 6
 Since the circuit is symmetry A =B

m.m. f  S1   2  S 2  S a 

In the center limb , the flux is 1mWb which is equal to 2 

Therefore =0.5mWb

m.m. f  0.5 10 15915  110

3
 3
 4388  994718
 8  999  1007 A
• The coupling between the coils can be increased
by wrapping the two coils around a core
– the fraction of the magnetic field that is coupled is
referred to as the coupling coefficient
• Coupling is particularly important in
transformers
– the arrangements below give a coupling coefficient
that is very close to 1
 Transformers

• Most transformers approximate to ideal

components
– that is, they have a coupling coefficient  1
– for such a device, when unloaded, their behaviour is
determined by the turns ratio
– for alternating voltages

V N
2 2
V N
1 1
• When used with a resistive load, current flows in
the secondary
– this current itself produces a magnetic flux which
opposes that produced by the primary
– thus, current in the
secondary reduces
the output voltage
– for an Videal
I Vtransformer
I
1 1 2 2
Circuit Symbols
14.13
 The Use of Inductance in Sensors
14.14

• Numerous examples:
• Inductive proximity
sensors
– basically a coil
wrapped around a
ferromagnetic rod
– a ferromagnetic plate coming close to the coil changes
its inductance allowing it to be sensed
– can be used as a linear sensor or as a binary switch
 D

Magnetic circuit applying Analogy to electrical cir

voltage law applying voltage Kirchoff’s law

Mmf in loop C = NI = HLlL + HMlM

outside loop NI= HLlL + HNlN
And in loop D 0 = HMlM + HNlN
In general (m.m.f) = Hl
 P
IL IM IN

L M N

At node P we can also applying current Kirchoff’s law

L = M + N

Or L - M - N = 0
In general:  = 0
 Example 5
A magnetic circuit made of silicon steel is arranged as in the
Figure. The center limb has a cross-section area of 800mm2 and
each of the side limbs has a cross-sectional area of 500mm 2.
Calculate the m.m.f required to produce a flux of 1mWb in the
center limb, assuming the magnetic leakage to be negligible.

340 1mm 340

mm 150 mm
mm
  110 3
  B A B  6
 1.25T
A 800  10

Looking at graph at B=1.25T r =34000

Apply voltage law in loops A and B 340

mm 150
1mm 340
mm

S2 
150  103
 4388
A mm
B
m.m. f   A S1    A   B  S 2  S a 
34000  4 10 7  800 10 6

1 340  10 3
S1    15915
 r  o A1 34000  4  10  500  10
7 6

3
110
Sa   994718
4  10  800 10
7 6
 Since the circuit is symmetry A =B

m.m. f  S1   2  S 2  S a 

In the center limb , the flux is 1mWb which is equal to 2 

Therefore =0.5mWb

m.m. f  0.5 10 15915  110

3
 3
 4388  994718
 8  999  1007 A
 Example 6

A U-shaped electromagnet shown in Fig. is I

N
designed to lift a mass. The material for the
yoke has a relative permeability of 2900. The Iron yoke
yoke has a uniform cross-sectional area of
4000 mm2 and a mean length of 600 mm.
Each of the air gaps is 0.1 mm long. The Keeper
Air gap
number of turns of the coil (N) is 240.
Assuming that the reluctance of the keeper is
negligible, calculate the maximum mass in kg,
Weight
which can be lifted by the system if a current
of 1.5 A is passed through the coil. You may
neglect the fringing effect and flux leakage;
and assume that
Calculation of maximum weight lifted by and electromagnet.

Let the flux density in the air gap be Ba

For the air gap Ba l a
2H a la  2
o
Ba  0.1 10 3
2
4  10 7
10 3
 Ba
2
For the iron yoke

Ba li Ba  600 10 3 6 10 3

H i li    Ba
 r  o 2900  4 10 7
11 .6
 Total mmf;

1 6  103
Hl  H a l a  H i li     Ba  323.8Ba  NI
 2 11.6  
NI 360
Ba    1.11 T
323.8 323.8

Since there are two air gaps;

 Ba 2 A  Ba 2 A 1.112  4000 10 6
F  2 
   3922 N
 2  o  o 4 10  7

mg  3922
3922 3922
m   400 kg
g 9.81
 Hysteresis loss

Materials before applying m.m.f (H), the polarity of

the molecules or structures are in random.

After applying m.m.f (H) , the polarity of the

molecules or structures are in one direction, thus the
materials become magnetized. The more H applied the
more magnetic flux (B )will be produced
 When we plot the mmf (H) versus the magnetic flux will
produce a curve so called Hysteresis loop
1. OAC – when more H applied,
B increased until saturated. At
this point no increment of B
when we increase the H.
2. CD- when we reduce the H
the B also reduce but will not
go to zero.
3. DE- a negative value of H has
to applied in order to reduce
B to zero.
4. EF – when applying more H
in the negative direction will
increase B in the reverse
direction.
 Eddy current
When a sinusoidal current enter
the coil, the flux  also varies
sinusoidally according to I. The
induced current will flow in the
magnetic core. This current is
called eddy current. This current
introduce the eddy current loss.
The losses due to hysteresis and
eddy-core totally called core loss.
To reduce eddy current we use
laminated core

metal insulator
 Inductance

• A changing magnetic flux induces an e.m.f. in any

conductor within it
• Faraday’s law:
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linking the circuit
• Lenz’s law:
The direction of the e.m.f. is such that it tends to
produce a current that opposes the change of flux
responsible for inducing the e.m.f.
• When a circuit forms a single loop, the e.m.f. induced is
given by the rate of change of the flux
• When a circuit contains many loops the resulting e.m.f.
is the sum of those produced by each loop
• Therefore, if a coil contains N loops, the induced
voltage V is given by dΦ
V N
dt

where d/dt is the rate of change of flux in Wb/s

• This property, whereby an e.m.f. is induced as a result
of changes in magnetic flux, is known as inductance
 Inductors

• The inductance of a coil depends on its

dimensions and the materials around which it is
formed

μ0 AN 2
L
l
• The inductance is greatly increased through the
use of a ferromagnetic core, for example

μ0 μr AN 2
L
l
• Equivalent circuit of an inductor

• All real circuits also possess stray capacitance

 Inductors in Series and Parallel

• When several inductors are connected together

their effective inductance can be calculated in the
same way as for resistors – provided that they are
not linked magnetically
• Inductors in Series
• Inductors in Parallel
 Voltage and Current
• Consider the circuit shown here
– inductor is initially un-energised
• current through it will be zero
– switch is closed at t = 0
– I is initially zero
• hence VR is initially 0
• hence VL is initially V
– as the inductor is energised:
• I increases
• VR increases
• hence VL decreases
• we have exponential behaviour
• Time constant
– we noted earlier that in a capacitor-resistor circuit
the time required to charge to a particular voltage is
determined by the time constant CR
– in this inductor-resistor circuit the time taken for the
current to rise to a certain value is determined by
L/R
– this value is again the time constant  (greek tau)
 Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

• Consider the application of a

sinusoidal current to an inductor
– from above V = L dI/dt
– voltage is directly proportional to
the differential of the current
– the differential of a sine wave is
a cosine wave
– the voltage is phase-shifted by
90 with respect to the current
– the phase-shift is in the opposite
direction to that in a capacitor
 Energy Storage in an Inductor

• Can be calculated in a similar manner to the

energy stored in a capacitor
• In a small amount of time dt the energy added to
the magnetic field is the product of the
instantaneous voltage, the instantaneous current
and the time di
Energy added  vi dt  L idt  Li di
dt
1 2
• I
 L  idt is increased
Thus, when theEcurrent LI from zero to I
0 2
 Mutual Inductance

• When two coils are linked magnetically then a

changing current in one will produce a changing
magnetic field which will induce a voltage in the other
– this is mutual inductance
• When a current I1 in one circuit, induces a voltage V2
in another circuit, then
dI
V M 1
2 dt
where M is the mutual inductance between the circuits. The unit of mutual
inductance is the Henry (as for self-inductance)
• The coupling between the coils can be increased
by wrapping the two coils around a core
– the fraction of the magnetic field that is coupled is
referred to as the coupling coefficient
• Coupling is particularly important in
transformers
– the arrangements below give a coupling coefficient
that is very close to 1