Renewable Energy Systems
The solar resource
Source: Masters (Chapter 7)
Electrical Engineering
Muhammad Jafar
Introduction
Info about sunlight necessary to design solar power systems
Power availability dependent upon
Location of sun in the sky
Angle of solar beams
Climatic conditions
The solar spectrum
Source of solar power
Fusion reactions in the sun and resulting heat
About radiation of energy
Proportional to temperature of the body radiating that energy
Blackbody radiation
• Perfect emitter: radiates more energy per unit area than any other real object
• Perfect absorber: absorbs all energy thrown at it
• Wavelength of emitted radiation from a blackbody (Planck’s law)
Emission spectrum of earth modelled
as a blackbody at 288 K
Area under Planck’s curve between 2
wavelengths is the power emitted
between those 2 wavelengths
Total area under the curve gives the
total power emitted
Given by Stefan-Boltzmann law of
radiation
Wavelength at which the curve
reaches its maximum
Given by Wien’s displacement rule
Example
Earth radiation
Wavelength for maximum radiation
Comparison with the sun
Important
Earth’s atmosphere behaves
differently to longer and
shorter wavelengths
A phenomenon responsible
for greenhouse effect
Sun’s interior temp.
estimated to be around 15
MK
Energy released matches a
5800 K blackbody
Area under the curve equals
1.37 kW per sq. m
Insolation outside the
atmosphere
UV 7%
Visible 47% (0.38 – 0.78 m)
IR 46%
Radiation energy absorbed
by various layers of our
atmosphere
Terrestrial spectrum is thus
irregular shaped
Absorption depends upon
the distance the beams have
to travel through the
atmosphere
The actual distance the rays have to cover
The minimum possible distance
Definition: air mass ratio
the altitude angle of the sun
AM1 when sun is directly overhead
AM0 refers to no atmosphere (extraterrestrial
spectrum)
Usually AM1.5 for average solar spectrum at the
surface of earth
AM1.5 energy distribution
2% in the UV spectrum
54% in the visible spectrum
44% in the infrared spectrum
Impact of angle on energy spectrum
Less energy reaches the surface
More energy in the infrared region
The earth’s orbit
Elliptical but nearly circular
Nearest point to the sun
Perihelion
January 2
147 million km
Furthest point from the sun
Aphelion
July 3
152 million km
Variation in distance from sun calculated using
is the day number in the year
Rotation about earth’s own axis
Spins 360.99 in every 24 hours
Not 360
Plane of rotation around sun
Ecliptic
Axis of own rotation tilted at 23.45 to the ecliptic
Equinox
March 21 and September 21 (roughly)
Line through the center of sun and the center of earth passes through the equator
Equal day time of 12 hours and night time of 12 hours (or more?)
Solstice
21 December and 21 June (roughly)
Maximum difference between day and night durations
Weird stuff
The orbital shape changes from highly elliptical to nearly circular with a period of 100000
years (eccentricity)
The angle of earth axis to the ecliptic oscillates between 21.5 and 24.5 with a period of
41000 years (obliquity)
Precession with a period of 23000 years
All these impact climate over geological timescales
Ice ages
Interglacial periods
Milankovitch oscillations
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
Sun at maximum height in the sky at solar noon
South in northern hemisphere
North in southern hemisphere
Info helpful for
designing windows for winter heating and summer blocking of sun
solar energy collector tilts
Earth perspective
Note the angle
Solar declination
Varies sinusoidaly
Earth perspective
Arctic and antarctic
summer solstice
• Arctic daylight 24 hours
• Antarctic night 24 hours
Winter solstice
• Arctic night 24 hours
• Antarctic daylight 24 hours
Deciding the tilt of a solar panel
Panel pointing south tilted at an
angle equal to the latitude value of
the location
Becomes parallel to the axis of
rotation of earth
The sun’s rays will be perpendicular
to the panel at local noon
At other times of the year, the sun is
a little higher or lower in the sky
On average a good tilt angle for most
of the year
Solar noon
Sun in the south always for northern
hemisphere above the tropic of Cancer
Sun in the north always for southern
hemisphere below the tropic of Capricorn
Either north, south, or directly overhead in
the tropics depending upon time of year
Collector angle
Towards equator is good enough all year
Angle can be increased to enhance winter
collection
Angle can be reduced to enhance summer
collection
Angle of sun at noon for any latitude
Altitude angle
Example
Solar position at any time of day
Two parameters
Altitude angle
Azimuth angle , subscript
depicting that it is the azimuth
angle of the sun
Azimuth positive in the morning
and negative in the afternoon by
convention
South is the reference in the
northern hemisphere
North is the reference in the
southern hemisphere
Azimuth and altitude vary
according to time of day
Variations also during the year
Azimuth
and altitude vary according
to time of day
Variations also during the year
Hour counting before and after solar
noon
Equations for computing angles
Time measurement according to ,
called hour angle
Angle in degrees through which the
earth must rotate for the sun to be
in the south
Angle in degrees through which the earth
must rotate for the sun to be in the south
Sun is above a certain longitude
(meridian) at any time
Hour angle is the local meridian minus the
sun’s meridian
Positive before noon
Negative after noon
Earth rotates almost 360 in a 24
hours
Or 15 per hour
Example hour angle at 1100
hours where noon is at 1200 is
15
Issue with equation
Spring and summer azimuth
may be more than 90 from
south in early morning and late
afternoon
Also arcsin is ambiguous
Need to determine whether
angle is more than 90 or less
Example
Altitude angle
Azimuth angle
Two possibilities for azimuth angle
For decision
Data can be charted
Example for L = 40
Sun path diagrams for shading analysis
Very important in determining shading
patterns at any site for PV
Need to sketch azimuth and altitudes for
obstacles in the path of sun rays
Possible with software but is very easy to
do with
Compass (for azimuth angles)
Protractor and Plumb bob (for altitude angle)
Measurement of altitude angle
Measurement of azimuth angle done with compass
But compass points to magnetic north and not true north (magnetic deviation or
declination)
Need correction for that
Superposition of obstacles on a sun path diagram
When these diagrams are combined with insolation information for the year, we
get energy lost due to these obstacles
Example
Solar time and civil (clock) time
Solar time (ST) different from civil time (CT)
ST measured from 1200 at solar noon (sun is exactly at the observer’s longitude)
However, clocks are aligned to CT
Adjustments need to be made
Longitude adjustment
Fudge factor for uneven way of earth’s rotation around the sun
Longitude adjustment
15 rotation per hour
4 minutes per degree
Earth divided into 24 time zones
Each time zone is 15 wide
All clocks within the time zone
set to the same time
Local time meridian is located in
the middle of the time zone
ideally
Origin of this time zone system
is Greenwitch, England
Longitude adjustment
Time correction between local time
and solar time is based on the time
it takes for the sun to travel
between the local meridian and
observer’s longitude
e.g. if it is solar noon at local
meridian, it will be 4 minutes later
for every degree the observer is
west of the meridian
Fudge correction
Solar noon varies throughout the year due to earth’s elliptic orbit
Solar day length changes every day
Equation describing this variation (equation of time)
where
Relationship between CT and ST after applying both corrections
Add 1 hour to CT during daylight saving time
Example
July 1 means
Use
Example
Adjust for daylight saving (July)
Sunrise and sunset
Rough times for sunrise and sunset can be obtained from
Accurate calculations can be done from
at sunrise and sunset
So
Geometric sunrise
Measured to the center of the sun
Actual sunrise and sunset affected by
The leading edge of the sun rising and the trailing edge sinking below the horizon
The refraction of light (2.4 min)
Seasons
• Sun sinks more vertically and less horizontally during equinoxes
• More sideways movement during solstices
Adjustment factor for accurate sunrise and sunset
To be subtracted for sunrise and added for sunset
Plot of Q factor
Between 4 and 6 minutes for
mid-latitudes
Example
Solar declination
Hour angle at sunrise
Solar time for geometric sunrise
Correction factor for refraction and leading-edge definition of sunrise
So the leading edge of the sun will appear 5.5 minutes before geometric sunrise
Local clock ahead of solar time by 12.1 min (From example 7.5)
Similar treatment for sunset
The reverse also works with these equations
Possible to find longitude and latitude from sunrise and sunset times.
Clear sky direct-beam radiation
Solar flux can come from three directions
Direct-beam radiation: coming straight through the atmosphere
Diffuse radiation: coming from other directions after scattering by air molecules and other
stuff
Reflected radiation: bouncing off of other objects and hitting the collector
Clear sky direct-beam radiation
Preferred measurement in Watts per square meter for solar electric
Other units: BTU, kilocalories, langleys
Collectors focus on direct-beam radiation only
Because the other two sources are not consistent in direction
No focusing in photovoltaic (PV) systems
All components of radiation can contribute to energy collection
Calculation of direct-beam radiation
Estimate extraterrestrial (ET) solar insolation
Depends upon varying sun-earth distance
Depends upon sun activity
• Varies predictably (11 year cycle)
• Sunspots appear to reduce insolation
• Faculae are brighter parts of the sun and increase
insolation
• Combined activity of sunspots and faculae result in
higher insolation
• Insolation during periods with sunspots is 1.5%
higher than those without sunspots
Equation describing ET solar insolation.
Calculation of direct-beam radiation
Equation describing ET solar insolation
• is the solar constant (average annual ET solar
insolation) Commonly agreed value of 1.377 kW / m2
• is the day number
The beam is absorbed and scattered upon entry
into the atmosphere
• Gas molecules
• Suspended particles
• Water vapour
Yearly average dispersion / absorption, more or
less, is more than half of what it is outside the
atmosphere
Calculation of direct-beam radiation
On a clear day when the sun is high in the sky,
70% reaches the surface of the earth
Attenuation of incoming radiation is a function
of
• distance the beam travels in the atmosphere (easy to
calculate)
• Dust, air pollution, atmospheric water vapor, clouds,
turbidity (not easy to calculate)
• Model of attenuation
• is the beam portion of the radiation reaching the
earth’s surface
• is the apparent ET flux
• is optical depth
Calculation of direct-beam radiation
Commonly used values of and , based on measurements in the US (?)
Equation describing these interactions
Example
May 21 is day number 141
Solar declination on May 21 is 20.1
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
Air mass ratio
Beam radiation on clear-sky day
Total clear-sky insolation on a collecting surface
Easy to calculate direct-beam radiation
Diffuse and reflective insolation is not easy to calculate
Since these are very small compared to direct-beam, we can use rough models
without loss of accuracy
Direct-beam radiation
Easy to translate into what is collected by a collector
Have to account for angle of incidence
Special case of a horizontal collector
is a function of
the altitude angle
azimuth angle
Orientation of collector
Orientation of collector
Tilt of collector
Azimuth angle of collector
Incidence angle given by
Example
Using equation
Using equation
Diffuse radiation
Chaotic phenomenon
Very difficult to accurately calculate
Simplest model is to assume diffused
radiation coming equally from all sides
with equal intensity
Exceptions
Sky is brighter in the vicinity of the sun on
a hazy or cloudy day
Even on clear days, this is the case
Both are ignored often
Mathematical model
Diffuse insolation on a horizontal surface, proportional to direct-beam radiation
sky diffuse factor
About 15% of total energy hitting a collector is from diffuse insolation
Diffuse radiation absorbed by a collector?
Main assumption: comes from every direction uniformly
Collector will be exposed to whatever fraction of the sky it is exposed to
means full is accessible
means 50% of is accessible
Example
Diffuse sky factor
Diffuse insolation
Total insolation = 697+88=785 W/m2
Reflected radiation
Radiation reflected off of objects in front of the collector
Can be significant: snow, water on a bright day
Can be very small
Again a chaotic phenomenon
Too many assumptions need to be made
Even then quite coarse estimates are arrived at
Ground reflectance for
Fresh snow 0.8
Bituminous-and-gravel roof 0.1
Ordinary ground and grass 0.2
Modeling
Assumption of large horizontal area
With reflectance which is diffuse
i.e. reflects in all directions with
equal intensity
Not a very suitable assumption
especially if the surface is smooth
and bright
Reflected amount: product of total
horizontal radiation (beam ) times
Modeling
Of this collected by collector depends
upon the tilt
means no reflected radiation
means 50% of reflected radiation is
accessible
Substitute values of and values
Example
Clear-sky reflected insolation on the collector
Total insolation
Distribution in total: 84.7% direct, 10.7% diffuse, 4.6% reflected
Combining all components
Describes total insolation of which reflected is often ignored
Tracking systems
No tracking is cost effective and simple to maintain
However, tracking is also becoming cheaper in certain applications
Tracker types
Two-axis trackers: track the altitude and azimuth of the sun
Single-axis trackers: track just one of the two possible options
Two-axis tracking
Equations
Single-axis tracking
Tracking in east-west
direction
Manually adjusted tilt
Tilt set to local latitude is
optimal (polar mount)
Single-axis tracking
Polar mount
If the east-west tracker
rotates at 15 per hour,
the center line will
always face the sun
Incidence angle will be
equal to solar
declination
Direct beam insolation is
then
Single-axis tracking
Polar mount
For diffuse and reflected insolation, tilt angle is required
Original tilt is
Effective tilt (angle between horizontal and the normal to
the collector plane)
Resulting equations
Example
Monthly clear-sky insolation
Just use the equations in previous sections and multiply them with time
Due consideration for angle changes
Variation of insolation with collector tilt angle (quite insignificant)
Annual values don’t tell the whole story
Non optimal tilt and orientation will generate less in one season and more in the other
Grid-connected PV systems don’t have a problem with this
Winter deficit can be brought in from the grid
Summer excess can be sold to the grid
Standalone systems need backup
Batteries or diesel generator
Will be stressed (back up size will increase) if collection is not optimal
Monthly insolation plot
Annual insolation for all variants
have the same annual output
The better are the ones with less
monthly variation
Fixed panels vs trackers
Both tracking options superior
Two-axis tracker is not
significantly superior to single-
axis tracking
Solar radiation measurement
Developed countries have a lot of measurement stations
In addition, modelling and simulation is also used for many
locations
Instrument
Pyranometer: measures radiation coming from all directions (direct
and diffuse)
Pyrheliometer: measures only direct beam through a narrow tube
Instruments can be used in a combination to discriminate
between direct and diffuse components of radiation
A blocking ring on a pyranometer can be used to measure only
the diffuse component
Spectrum measurement is also important these days
UV radiation exposure is a skin cancer risk
The same instruments with filters can provide accurate spectral measurements
Detectors
Thermopiles are stacked thermocouples
Alternating black and white surfaces; black absorb and become hotter than the white that
reflect back almost all the energy. A voltage is generated because of temperature
difference. The brighter the source, the higher the voltage
Alternatively: sensor is all black and the temperature difference with casing is measured
Alternative detector
Photodiode generates a current proportional to insolation and raises the voltage across a
resistance in the current loop
Less accurate since they only respond to certain wavelengths, not the case with
thermopiles
Can be calibrated to produce accurate measurements under clear skies
Not so accurate if the spectrum is altered (measurement through glass or clouds)
Not accurate in measuring artificial light either
Average monthly insolation
Decisions about solar installations cannot be made on instantaneous clear-sky
insolation levels
We have to take long-term averages
Starting point is average insolation data on horizontal surfaces
This data has to be converted to radiation on tilted collectors.
needs bifurcation of available horizontal data into direct and diffuse radiation
Let
Measured horizontal insolation
Diffuse insolation
Direct beam insolation
Easier to decompose diffuse into diffuse and reflected part on a tilted collector
Not very easy to convert horizontal direct beam into beam on a collector surface
Conversion of total horizontal insolation to beam and diffuse
Defining a clearness index
Ratio of and the extra-terrestrial insolation on a horizontal surface
Higher values of clearness index means most part of insolation is direct beam and vice
versa
Average daily extra-terrestrial insolation throughout the day (energy units)
Equations used:
Sin of the solar angle from sunrise to sunset
Resulting equation
Usually, clearness index is based on a monthly average
Daily calculated and averaged over the month
Correlation between diffuse and direct beam at the surface is a topic of debate
One theory
Diffuse collected by a collector surface can be calculated using
Resulting equations
Average direct beam radiation can be calculated by subtracting diffuse and
reflected averages from the total average
Next step is to convert this horizontal insolation to that collected by a tilted
collector
Starting equations to combine
We get
the beam tilt factor
The equation describes instantaneous value
We need average over a month
We calculate average values of
during daytime hours
during daytime hours
where
Where
Sunrise angle in radian
sunrise hour angle for the collector (when sunlight hits the collector for the first
time in the morning)
The ultimate equation for average insolation
Example
Average monthly insolation - Comments
Computations quite tedious
Thankfully already done
Easier to program this in a spreadsheet
Often done by national renewable energy boards / regulators
Example data provided by NREL in USA
