Principles of Food Processing

and Halal Requirement

(WEEK 11)
 TOPICS TO BE COVERED

• Food Processing
• Types of Food Processing and Preservation
• Requirements for Halal Food Processing
 Food Processing
Set of methods and techniques used to transform
raw ingredients into food or to transform food into
other forms for consumption by humans or animals
either in the home or by the food industry.
 AIM of Food Processing
• To improve safety and
•Have safe food products freshness of products

• Improve and • Development

control the of traditional
functionality of Food and innovative
food constituents food products
Processing
• To improve or maintain
nutritional values
• Increase the storage life of food
products • Keep quality of food
products
*most important reason to process food is to make it last
longer and prevent food spoilage.
FOOD SPOILAGE
‘Food spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point
it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility becomes reduced’
•Foods are made from natural materials ---- will deteriorate (spoil) in
time.
•The food spoilage is the natural way of recycling, restoring carbon,
phosphorus, and nitrogenous matters to the earth.
•Resulting 
– modify the quality of foods from good to bad,
– creating poor appearance (discoloration),
– offensive smell,
– inferior taste.
•Consumption of spoiled foods can cause sickness and even death.
Principle of Food Spoilage
• Food spoilage could be caused:-
1.biological factors
2.chemical factors
3.physical factors.
 Food Spoilage by Biological Factors
• Processed and natural foods are composed mainly of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• Under natural storage conditions, foods start to
deteriorate once the living cells in the foods (plant and
animal origins) are dead.
• Either when the cells are dead or if the tissues are
damaged, deterioration begins with the secretion of
internal enzyme: proteases, lipases, and lyases from
lyzosomes to disintegrate the cells, to hydrolyze
proteins into amino acids and starch into simpler sugars
and to de-esterificate fats (triglycerides) into fatty acids.
• The exposure of foods and damaged cells to the environment
attracts microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, molds, and virus) and
insects, which in turn further accelerate the decomposition of the
food.

• Food spoilage process:

• Foods contaminated with microorganisms lead to food-borne

illnesses
Food  biological process  microorganism  food spoilage
–food-borne infection caused by pathogenic bacteria
–food-borne intoxication
 Most Common Bacteria Genera Found in
Certain Food

• Corynebacterium, Leuconostoc --Dairy products

• Achromobacter -- Meat, poultry, seafoods
• Bacteriodes, Proteus -- Eggs and meats
• Pseudomonas -- Meats, poultry, eggs
 Food Spoilage by Chemical Factors

• Through oxidation process

• Foods are oxidized:
– The odor, taste, and color may change, and
some nutrients may be destroyed.
– Oxidative rancidity results from the liberation
of odorous products during breakdown of
unsaturated fatty acids. These products
include aldehydes, ketones, and shorter-chain
fatty acids
Example: Food Browning

• Browning of foods during processing and storage, especially

during manufacture of meat, fish, fruit and vegetable products
decreases the sensory properties of products due to
associated changes in the colour, flavour, and softening
besides nutritional properties.

• Control is essential to preserve the quality of the food.

• Types:
1. Enzymatic reaction
2. Non-enzymatic enzymatic
1. Enzymatic Reaction

• The discoloration that results when monophonic compounds

of plants or shellfish, in the presence of atmospheric oxygen
and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), are hdydroxylated to o-
diphenols, and the latter are oxidised to o-quinones
• The quinones condense and react nonenzymatically with
other phenolic compounds, amino acids, etc., to produce dark
brown, black or red pigments of indeterminate structure
Example:
cut surfaces of light-colored fruits (apples, bananas) and
vegetables (potatoes) due to the of phenols to orthoquinones,
which in turn rapidly polymerize to form brown pigments
known as melanins
2. Non-Enzymatic Reaction
Nonenzymatic Browning is discoloration resulting from
(a) the reaction of carbonyl groups (reducing sugar, aldehydes, ketones, lipid
oxidation products ) and amino compound (lysine, glysine, peptide, amine, ammonia
proteins) (Namiki, 1988)
(b) include caramelisation or pyrolysis of food carbohydrate (Wedzicha, 1984) due to
heat treatment above the melting point of the sugar under alkaline or acidic
conditions (Namiki, 1988)
(c) ascorbic acid browning, that is the spontaneous thermal decomposition of
ascorbic acid under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and either in the presence
or absence of amino-
compound (Wedzicha, 1984)
(d) lipid browning, which is probably oxidative of unsaturated deterioration of
glyceride components followed by polymerisation which is accelerated by the
presence of ammonia, amines
or proteins (Wedzicha, 1984)
 Food Spoilage and Physical Factors
• Physical factors:
– temperature,
– Moisture
– pressure
• Moisture and heat can also produce hydrolytic rancidity in fats; in
this case, fats are split into free fatty acids, which may cause off
odors and rancid flavors in fats and oils (Potter and Hotchkiss
1995).
• Excessive heat denatures proteins, breaks emulsions, removes
moisture from food, and destroys nutrients such as vitamins.
• Excessive coldness, such as freezing, also discolors fruits and
vegetables, changes their texture and/or cracks their outer
coatings to permit contamination by microorganisms.
• Foods under pressure will be squeezed and transformed
into unnatural conformation.
– The compression will likely break up the surface structure,
release degradative enzymes, and expose the damaged food to
exterior microbial contamination
Prevention Food spoilage

• Food spoilage can be prevented by

1. appropriate preservation techniques,
2. standardized storing conditions.
3. proper sanitary practices in food handling
and processing,
 The GOALS of modern food
processing:
1. Formulation. A logical basic sequence of steps
to produce an acceptable and quality food
product from raw materials.
2. Easy production procedures. Develop methods
that can facilitate the various steps of production
3. Time economy. A cohesive plan that combines
the science of production and manual labor to
reduce the time needed to produce the product.
4. Consistency. Application of modern science and
technology to assure the consistency of each batch of
products.
5. Product and worker safety. The government and the
manufacturers work closely to make sure that the
product is wholesome for public consumption, and the
workers work in a safe environment.
6. Buyer friendliness. Assuming the buyer likes the
product, the manufacturer must do everything humanly
possible to ensure that the product is user friendly (size,
cooking instructions, keeping quality, convenience, etc.)
 Techniques Involved in Food
processing
• Heating process
• Encapsulation
• Extrusion
• High Pressue Processing
 1)HEAT PROCESSING
• one of the most common procedures used in
manufacture of processed foods by applying high
temperature.
– Examples include the pasteurizing of milk, bakery products,
roasting peanuts, and canning.
• Foods may be heated or cooked using
– (1) direct injection of steam,
– (2) direct contact with flame,
– (3) toasters,
– (4) electronic energy as in microwave cookers, and
– (5) many forms of new technology
• Heating is used in
– (1) baking,
– (2) frying,
– (3) food concentration,
– (4) food dehydration, and
– (5) package closure
 Commercially, the basic
reasons for heating are:-
• Destruction of microorganisms and preservation of food.
-Food canning and milk pasteurization are common
examples.
• Removal of moisture and development of flavors.
-Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals and coffee roasting are
common examples.
• Inactivation of natural toxicants.
-Processing soybean meal is a good example.
• Improvement of the sensory attributes of the food
-such as color, texture, mouth-feel.
• Combination of ingredients to develop unique food attributes and
attract consumer preferences
HEAT PROCESSING

1-PASTEURIZATION
2-STERILIZATION
3-BLANCHING
1-PASTEURIZATION

•A mild heat treatment used primarily to

destroy pathogenic organisms but it also
destroys enzymes and reduces microbial
load.
•Requires an addition preservation method to
extend shelf life (example: refrigeration,
drying).
• Used for milk, liquid eggs, fruit juices
and selected drink.
• Destroy pathogens
• Reduce microbial load   (numbers)
• Inactivate enzymes
• Extend shelf life
2-STERILIZATION

A severe heat treatment that destroys

pathogenic and many microorganisms that
could spoil food. Extends shelf life, room
temperature stable. (canned foods)

COMMERCIAL STERILIZATION
-include : food sources, products, equipments
3- BLANCHING

A mild heat treatment that primarily destroys

enzymes and reduces microbial load (does
not necessarily kill pathogens), further
preservation methods needed to extend
shelf life.
Example: Vegetables, frozen, canned
food
BLANCHING OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
OBJECTIVES:
1. Inactivate enzymes to maintain:
a) color
b) Texture
c) Flavor  
d) Nutritive value
BLANCHING OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
OBJECTIVES (cont.):
2. Lower microbial load (combination of
rinsing action and heat)
3. Aids in packaging – wilts vegetables
and removes respiratory gases
4. Removes dirt
5. Aids in peeling
 2)ENCAPSULATION
Encapsulation can be defined as “a process where a
continuous thin coating is formed around solid
particles, liquid droplets or gas cells that are fully
contained within the capsule wall”. (King 1995)

Can you think of some natural examples?

Birds’ egg
shells

Plant seeds
Encapsulation
The process has been used in the food industry for over
60 years. Using new technologies the process is
developing all the time.

Encapsulation is used in food technology to protect

liquid or solid ingredients from environmental and/or
chemical reactions until they are needed.

The process makes things easier to handle, e.g. changes

a liquid into a solid. It can enhance flavour and
nutritional value.
Applications in the food industry
These aim:
•to preserve and to increase shelf life;
•to prevent premature reactions and interactions;
•to enhance flavour, texture and quality;
•to control the release of ingredients;
•to mask taste and ‘off’ smells.

Example: fortified foods

Micro-encapsulation coats small particles such as
B vitamins, vitamin C, iron, omega-3 fatty acids with a
thin, tasteless, edible film masking any bitter taste and off
odour.  Products are enhanced without changing
the desired flavour.
3)Extrusion
• A process by which the form of a food is changed
Eg: Such as changing corn to corn chips
• Not a preservation measure
• In this process, the food is heated, ground, and pushed
through various kinds of screens to yield different shapes
• Results in considerable nutrient losses
– Nutrients are usually added to compensate
•Foods this far removed from the original state are
still lacking significant nutrients (notably vitamin E)
and fiber
• High pressure processing is a method of cold
pasteurisation that preserves food by subjecting it to
intense pressures to kill microbes, such as yeasts,
moulds and bacteria, while maintaining the fresh
qualities of the food.
• Advantages:
– Retains physical and sensory properties (little significant change to flavour) and no
deterioration from heat treatment.
– Inactivates microbes
– Retains nutritional value
– Chemical preservatives not required
– HPP cannot be applied to all products. It can be used on foods with high acid
content. It is not suitable for low acid products such as milk, vegetables or soups
because the process is not able to destroy spores without the use of heat
– Extend shelf life
– Avoids or reduces the need for food preservatives
– Possibility of new innovative food products
– Only needs water (which is recycled) and electricity
– HPP results in foods with fresher taste, and better appearance, texture and nutrition.
– High pressure processing can be conducted at ambient or refrigerated temperatures,
thereby eliminating thermally induced cooked off-flavors
• high pressure has very little effect on low molecular
weight compounds such as flavor compounds, vitamins,
and pigments compared to thermal processes
• The quality of HPP pasteurized food is very similar to
that of fresh food products and the quality degradation
is influenced more by subsequent storage and
distribution rather than the pressure treatment.
• Pressure also provides a unique opportunity to create
and control novel food textures in protein-based or
starch-based foods.
 FOOD PRESERVATION

• Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food

in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent
foodborne illness and extend its shelf-life.
• To preserve a food, a process must prevent three kinds of
conditions:
1. Microbial growth
2. Oxidative changes
3. Enzymatic destruction
 Food Preservation
How does food preservation work?

•All of the food preservation processes work by slowing

down the activity and growth of disease causing bacteria,
or by killing the bacteria all together. They also slow down
or stop the action of enzymes which can degrade the
quality of the food.

38
 Methods used for Food Preservation
• Methods using coldness
• Refrigeration
• Freezing
Processing and • Methods using heating
preservation • Pasteurisation
improved by an • Sterilisation
adapted • UHT processing
packaging • Methods by dessiccation
• Concentration (liquid food like milk)
(sterile, • Drying
impenetrable to
• Other methods
water, air, • Filtration
pathogen,odor) • High pressure
• Ultra-sounds
• Pulsed electrical fields
 Malaysian Standard in Halal
Food Processing
• All processed halal food shall meet the following requirements:
a) food or its ingredients shall not be processed using any components or products
of animals that are non-halal by Shariah law or of halal food any components or
products of animals that are not slaughtered according to Shariah law;
b) food shall not be processed using anything in any quantity that is decreed as
najs by Shariah law;
c) processed food or its ingredients shall be safe for consumption, non-poisonous,
non intoxicating or non-hazardous to health;
d) food shall be prepared, processed or manufactured using equipment and
facilities that are free from contamination with najs
e) During preparation, processing and storage, food must not come into contact or
close proximity with any food which do not meet the requirements in Paragraph I,
II or III or any product that is considered as filth according to Islamic Laws
All processed foods are Halal if the ingredients used are Halal, so as
and the processing done is clean and free from the filth such as :
i) Must not be made of, or containing any parts or products
from animals, which are forbidden by Islamic Laws to be consumed by
Muslims or not slaughtered according to Islamic Laws.
ii)Must not contain any products which are considered as filth
according to Islamic Laws whether in little or large quantities such as
pig oils, fats, lards from carcass, types of alcohol and other items.
.
Alcohol in Food Processing:

The Fatwa Committee of Malaysia in their meeting on 11-12th April 1984

has decided a few important points regarding alcohol. They are:
1) All liquor contains alcohol but not all alcohol is liquor. Alcohol which
was derived from the liquor production processes is Haram and
considered as filth but alcohol which are derived from non-liquor
production processes is not filth but Haram to be drinked because it is
poisonous and harmful.
2) Soft drinks which are made with the same way as the liquor
production process either
contained a little alcohol or its alcohol has been distilled are haram to be
drink.
3) Soft drinks which are not made for liquor or any intoxicating drinks and
are not produced in the same way as the liquor processes are Halal.
4) Cordials which contain any flavoring substances derived from alcohol for
the
purpose of stabilizing the soft drinks are allowed to be used as drinks, if:
a) The alcohol is not made from a liquor production process.
b) The quantity of alcohol in the flavors is too little and not
resulting in drunken condition or any side effect.
5) Tapai (fermented rice or cassava) is Halal to be eaten.
6) Alcohol that is produced from the food production processes (by
products) is nonfilth and allowed to eat.
7) Medicines and fragrances, which contain alcohol, are allowed to be used.
8) Alcohol is usually used as:
a)Active ingredient in drinks, food and medicine.
b) Solution medium such as for cosmetics and fragrances.
• Alcohol:
• Wine & Liquor is not permitted
• Alcohols naturally occurring in fruits
which is distilled into essences is
condoned in small amounts.
• Ethanol used for technical applications
e.g. solvent, carrier etc. may be
permitted at specified residual levels.
Example:
• Ethyl alcohol used for technical process
– Extraction of flavours eg; Vanilla
– Flavour carrier
– Used as solvent or substrate
– Disinfectent
permitted at appropriate level
• Residual amount permitted vary by country
• Naturally according in fruits: no restriction if
the fruits used directly as the ingredient
% alcohol permitted in food
• COUNTRY % ALCOHOL
• Malaysia (JAKIM) 0.01
• Indonesia (MUI) 1.0
• Thailand (AOI) 1.0
• Singapore (MUIS) 0.5
• Brunei (BIRC) 0.0
• Europe < 0.5
• UK Not allowed
• Canada Not allowed
 Example of food processing

• FERMENTATION
– Culture and media ingredient
– Extraction and purification
– Standardization ingredients
– Sanitation chemicals
------ All rules apply for food production also
applied for fermentation
 Sanitation & Cross-Contamination
• In Food Processing, all equipment must be clean per
visual/laboratory inspection
– Clean up after non Halal Ingredients production (if both
are being processed with the same equipment)
– But in Malaysia, we avoid of using similar equipment for
halal and non-halal ingredients
• All Halal products must be segregated during storage to
avoid cross-contamination