Steady State Flow
Flow of water through soil
There are 2 main issues
• Quantity of water flowing
• Pore water pressures
Flow through a Dam
Unsaturated
Soil
Flow of water
Soil behaviour is governed by Effective Stress
xx xx u w ; yz yz
yy yy u w ; zx zx
zz zz u w ; xy xy
When water flows pore water pressures change.
This can be important when considering stability of retaining
walls, earth dams, and other soil constructions
Definition of Head at a Point
u w ( P)
h ( P) z( P ) (1)
w
Note
z(P)
z is measured vertically up
from the datum
Datum
Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
2m u w ( P) = 4g w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
2m u w ( P) = 4g w
1m X z( P) = 1
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
2m u w ( P) = 4g w
1m X z( P) = 1
5 m thus
P 4g w
1m
h( P) = + 1 = 5m
Impermeable stratum gw
Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
u w ( X) = gw
2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
u w ( X) = gw
2m
1m X z ( X) = 4
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
u w ( X) = gw
2m
1m X z ( X) = 4
5 m thus
P
1m
gw
h ( X) = + 4 = 5m
Impermeable stratum gw
Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer
u w ( X) = gw
2m
1m X z ( X) = 4
5 m thus
P
1m
gw
h ( X) = + 4 = 5m
Impermeable stratum gw
The heads at P and X are identical does this imply that the head
is constant throughout the region below a static water table?
Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the water table
2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( P) = 4g w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( P) = 4g w
1m X z( P) = -4
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( P) = 4g w
1m X z( P) = -4
5m thus
P
1m 4g w
Impermeable stratum h( P) = - 4 = 0m
gw
Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( X) = 1g w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( X) = 1g w
1m X z( X) = -1
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( X) = 1g w
1m X z( X) = -1
5m thus
P
1m gw
Impermeable stratum
h ( X) = - 1 = 0m
gw
Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the water table
2m u w ( X) = 1g w
1m X z( X) = -1
5m thus
P
1m gw
Impermeable stratum
h ( X) = - 1 = 0m
gw
Again, the head at P and X is identical, but the value is different
Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
• Differences in head are required for flow (not pressure)
Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
• Differences in head are required for flow (not pressure)
2m It can be helpful to consider
imaginary standpipes
1m X
placed in the soil at the
5m points where the head is
P
1m required
Impermeable stratum
Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
• Differences in head are required for flow (not pressure)
2m It can be helpful to consider
imaginary standpipes
1m X
placed in the soil at the
5m points where the head is
P
1m required
Impermeable stratum
The head is the elevation of the water level in the
standpipe above the datum
Water flow through soil
h
Soil Sample
L
Darcy found that the flow (volume per unit time) was
• proportional to the head difference Dh
• proportional to the cross-sectional area A
• inversely proportional to the length of sample DL
Darcy’s Law
Dh
Thus Q = kA (2a)
DL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.
Darcy’s Law
Dh
Thus Q = kA (2a)
DL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.
Equation (2a) may be written as
Q k A i
Darcy’s Law
Dh
Thus Q = kA (2a)
DL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.
Equation (2a) may be written as
Q k A i
or v=ki (2b)
where i = Dh/DL the hydraulic gradient
v = Q/A the Darcy or superficial velocity
Measurement of permeability
inlet
constant head
device
load
H
Manometers
outlet
device for flow sample L
measurement
porous disk
Fig. 4 Constant Head Permeameter
Constant head permeameter
The volume discharge X during a suitable time interval T
is collected.
The difference in head H over a length L is measured by
means of manometers.
Knowing the cross-sectional area A, Darcy’s law gives
X H
k A
T L
Constant head permeameter
The volume discharge X during a suitable time interval T
is collected.
The difference in head H over a length L is measured by
means of manometers.
Knowing the cross-sectional area A, Darcy’s law gives
X H
k A
T L
It can be seen that in a constant head permeameter::
X L
k
A H T
(3)
Measurement of permeability
Standpipe of
cross-sectional
area a
porous disk
H1
H
Sample H2
L of area A
Fig. 5 Falling Head Permeameter
Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval dt a
H
a
t
The flow in the standpipe =
H1
H
Sample H2
L of area
A
Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval dt a
H
a
t
The flow in the standpipe =
kA
H
L
H1
The flow in the sample = H
Sample H2
L of area
A
Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval dt a
H
a
t
The flow in the standpipe =
kA
H
L
H1
The flow in the sample = H
Sample H2
and thus L of area
a
dH
dt
k A
H
L
A
(4a)
Falling head permeameter
Solution Standpipe
of area
dH H
-a = kA (4a) a
dt L
Equation (4a) has the solution:
H1
kA H
-a l n( H ) = t + cons tan t (4b)
L H2
Sample
L of area
A
Falling head permeameter
Solution Standpipe
of area
dH H
-a = kA (4a) a
dt L
Equation (4a) has the solution:
H1
kA H
-a l n( H ) = t + cons tan t (4b)
L H2
Sample
L of area
Initially H=H1 at time t=t1 A
Finally H=H2 at time t=t2.
aL l n( H1 / H 2 )
k= (4c)
A t 2 - t1
Typical permeability values
10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12
Gravels Sands Silts Homogeneous Clays
Fissured & Weathered Clays
Typical Permeability Ranges (metres/second)
Soils exhibit a wide range of permeabilities and while particle
size may vary by about 3-4 orders of magnitude permeability
may vary by about 10 orders of magnitude.
Definition of Hydraulic Gradients
For horizontal flow v=vx
z
and k=kH and thus
A vx k Hix
where
z
h ( C ) h ( B)
B C ix (5a)
x
x and thus
O x h
vx kH
x
Definition of Hydraulic Gradients
For vertical flow v=vz
z
and k=kV and thus
A vz kVi z
z where
B C iz
h(A) h(B)
x z
O x and thus (5b)
h
vz kV
z
Fig. 8 Plane Flow under a Dam
Cross section of a long dam
(flow in the y direction is negligible)
Dam
Soil
Flow
x
Impermeable bedrock
vz Fig. 9 Flow into
a soil element
C
vx D Soil B z
Element
A
x
Net flow =(v x (B)-v x (D))yz+(v z (C)-v z (A)) xy (6a)
For steady state seepage the net flow in w ill be
zero, thus
v x v z
0
x z (6b)
vz Fig. 9 Flow into
a soil element
C
vx D Soil B z
Element
A
x
Net flow =(v x (B)-v x (D))yz+(v z (C)-v z (A)) xy (6a)
For steady state seepage the net flow in w ill be
zero, thus
v x v z
0
x z (6b)
Continuity Equation
v x v z
Continuity Equation 0 (6b)
x z
Continuity Equation
v x v z
Continuity Equation 0 (6b)
x z
+ Darcy's Law
+
h
vx k H
x
Darcy’s Law h (5)
vz k V
z
Continuity Equation
v x v z
Continuity Equation 0 (6b)
x z
+ Darcy's Law
+
h
vx k H
x
Darcy’s Law h (5)
vz k V
z
h h
Flow equation ( k H ) ( k V ) 0 (7b)
x x z z
h h
Flow equation (k H ) (k V ) 0 (7b)
x x z z
h h
Flow equation (k H ) (k V ) 0 (7b)
x x z z
2 2
h h
For a homogeneous soil kH 2 kV 2 0 (7c)
x z
h h
Flow equation (k H ) (k V ) 0 (7b)
x x z z
2 2
h h
For a homogeneous soil kH 2 kV 2 0 (7c)
x z
2 2
h h
For an isotropic soil
2
2 0 (7d)
x z
