Engineering Mechanics :

SOLID MECHANICS I

CHAPTER 4 : TORSION
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 CHAPTER 4 : TORSION
Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to:
1. discuss effects of applying torsional loading to a long straight member
2. determine stress distribution within the member under torsional load
3. determine angle of twist when material behaves in a linear-elastic manner
4. discuss statically indeterminate analysis of shafts and tubes
5. discuss stress distributions and residual stress caused by torsional
loadings
Topics:

• Torsional Deformation of a
Circular Shaft
• The Torsion Formula/Angle of Twist
• Power Transmission
•Statically Indeterminate Problems
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4.0 APPLICATION
3
Notice the deformation
of the rectangular
element when this
rubber bar is subjected
to a torque

4.0 Application
This tabular drive shaft for a truck was subjected to an overload
resulting in failure caused by yielding of the material 5

4.0 Application
The drive shaft of this cutting machine must be designed to meet the
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power requirements of its motor.
4.0 Application
Oil wells are commonly drilled to
depths exceeding a thousand
meters. As a result, the total angle
of twist of a string of drill pipe
can be substantial and must be
computed.

4.0 Application
When computing both the stress and the angle of twist of this soil
auger, it is necessary to consider the variable loading which8 acts
along its length
4.0 Application
 INTRODUCTION
• Torsion is a moment that twists/deforms a member about its longitudinal
axis
• Its effect is of primary concern in the design of axles or drive shafts used
in vehicles and machinery
• By observation, if angle of rotation is small, length of shaft and its radius
remain unchanged

4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

Torsional Loads on Circular Shaft
• Interested in stresses and strains
of circular shafts subjected to
twisting couples or torques.
• Turbine exerts torque T on the
shaft.
• Shaft transmits the torque to the
generator.
• Generator creates an equal and
opposite torque T’.

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4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

4.1 TORSIONAL DEFORMATION
OF A CIRCULAT SHAFT
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 TORSION
• Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member when it is loaded by
moments/torques that produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of the
member

• The problem of transmitting a torque or rotary motion from one plane to

another is frequently encountered in machine design.

• Normally circular bars are used for such transmissions chiefly because, in
these bars, a plane section before twisting remains plane after twisting.

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Assumption to determining the relationship of the shearing stress in
circular shaft subjected to torsions:

 the material of the shaft is homogeneous

 the maximum shearing stress in the shaft is within the elastic
limit
 the twist remains uniform along the whole length of the shaft
 the normal cross-section of the shaft which are plane and
circular before the twist remain same after the twist
 the straight radial line of any cross section of the shaft remain
straight.
 the distance between any two cross section of the shaft
remain the same
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 Torsional Deformation of Circular Bars
• Consider a bar of circular cross-section twisted by
couples T at the ends. Because the bar is subjected to
torsion only, it is said to be in pure torsion.

• Assuming that the end B is fixed, then the torque will

cause end A to rotate through a small angle Ф, known
as the angle of twist. Thus the longitudinal line AB on
the surface of the bar will rotate through a small angle
to position A'B

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• Since the ends of the element remain
planar, the shear strain is equal to
angle of twist,.
• It follows that BB '  L  r or   r
L

• According to Hooke’s law, for linear elastic materials, shear

stresses are proportional to shear strains and the constant of
proportionality is the modulus of rigidity, G. Hence
  r  Gr   G
G   G  G    
 L L r L
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 Torsion Formula: Relationship between
T and 
• To determine the relationship between the applied
torque T and the stresses it produces, we consider
equilibrium of the internal forces and the externally
applied torque, T.
• Considering an elemental area dA within an elemental
ring of thickness dr situated at radius r from the centre:

dF   x  2x  dx
dF=x dA r
dM  xdF
dF=x·2x.dx
 
 x   x  2x  dx 
x  r 

x r 
  2x 3  dx
 r
x   x 
r M    2x 3  dx
r
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• Moments (M) from the internal stress distribution is
equal to the torque (T).

T    2 x 3  dx
r
 3
  2x  dx
r
J   2 x 3  dx

T  J
r
T  G
 
J r L

J= Momen Luas Kedua Kutub/ the polar moment of inertia of the

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cross-sectional area
 Polar moment of inertia for some structure

i) Solid shaft ii) Hollow shaft

TL D
d
 2
J   2x 3  dx
2
J   2x 3  dx GJ TR
0 d max 
2 J
d TR
 2x 4  2 max  D
J  J  2x 4  2
 4  0 J Tr
 min 
 4  d J
d 4
J 2
32
J

32

D4  d 4 
• Computation of Angle of Twist
 T

L GJ 18
4.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
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 Torsion Formula
Torsional Formula – equation that relates the internal torque to the
shear stress distribution on the cross section of a circular shaft or
tube. This formula can be only used if the shaft is circular and the
material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear-elastic manner
Tc Tr
max  
J J
τmax = the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer
surface
T = the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section. Its value is
determined from the method of sections and the equation of moment
equilibrium applied about the shaft’s longitudinal axis
J = the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
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c = the outer radius of the shaft
4.2 The Torsional Formula
Torsional Failure Mode
• Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a
ductile specimen breaks along a
plane of maximum shear, i.e., a
plane perpendicular to the shaft
axis.
• When subjected to torsion, a
brittle specimen breaks along
planes perpendicular to the
direction in which tension is a
maximum, i.e., along surfaces at
45o to the shaft axis. 21
The Torsional Formula
 IMPORTANT POINTS
• When a shaft having a circular cross section is subjected to a torque, the
cross section remains plane while radial lines rotate. This causes a shear
strain within the material that varies linearly along any radial line, from
zero at the axis of the shaft to a maximum at its outer boundary
• For linearly elastic homogeneous material, due to Hooke’s law, the shear
stress along any radial line of the shaft also varies linearly, from zero at
its axis to a maximum at its outer boundary. This maximum shear stress
must not exceed the proportional limit.
• Due to the complementary property of shear, the linear shear stress
distribution within the plane of the cross section is also distributed along
an adjacent axial plane of the shaft.
• The torsion formula is based on the requirement that the resultant torque
on the cross section is equal to the torque produced by the linear shear
stress distribution about the longitudinal axis of the shaft. It is necessary
that the shaft or tube have a circular cross section and that it is made
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of
homogeneous material which has linear-elastic behavior.
The Torsional Formula
 Procedure of Analysis
Internal loading
• Section shaft perpendicular to its axis at point where shear stress is to be
determined
• Use free-body diagram and equations of equilibrium to obtain internal
torque at section
Section property
• Compute polar moment of inertia and x-sectional area
• For solid section, J = c4/2
• For tube or hollow, J = (co4  ci2)/2
Shear stress
• Specify radial distance , measured from centre of x-section to point
where shear stress is to be found
• Apply torsion formula,  = T /J or max = Tc/J
• Shear stress acts on x-section in direction that is always
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perpendicular to 
The Torsional Formula
 Sign Convention
Use right-hand rule: torque and angle of twist are positive when
thumb is directed outward from the shaft

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Angle of Twist
 IMPORTANT POINT

• The angle of twist is determined by relating the applied

torque to the shear stress using the torsion formula, τ =
Tρ/J and relating the relative rotation to the shear strain
using dφ = γdx/ρ. Finally, these equations are combined
using Hooke’s law, τ = Gγ which yield angle of twist
φ(phi) equation.
• Since Hooke’s law is used in the development of the
formula for the angle of twist, it is important that the
applied torques do not cause yielding of the material
and that the material is homogeneous and behaves in a
linear-elastic manner.

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Angle of Twist
 Example 1:
a) Determine the torque T which causes a maximum shearing stress of
70 MPa in the steel cylindrical shaft shown.
b) Determine the maximum shearing stress caused by a torque of
magnitudeT = 800 Nm.

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Solution (a)
Tr
Solution:
 max 
J
d 4    2r     2  0.018
4 4

J    1.65 10 7
32 32 32
 max J  70 106  1.65 10 7
T   641.67 Nm
r 0.018
Solution (b)
Tr
 max 
J
d 4    2r     2  0.018
4 4

J    1.65  10  7
32 32 32
800  0.018
 max   87.3MPa
1.65 10 7
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 Example 2:

Knowing that the internal diameter

of the hollow shaft shown is d = 23
mm, determine the maximum
shearing stress caused by a torque
of magnitude T = 1.0 kNm.

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 Solution:
40
d o  40mm  0.04m, ro   20mm  0.02m
2
23
d i  23mm  0.023m, ri   11 .5mm  0.0115 m
2
Tr
 max  o
J
J

32
 4
4 
d o  d i   0.04 4  0.0234   2.24  10 7 m 4
32

1.0 103 Nm  0.02m

 max   89.3MPa
2.24 10 m
7 4

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Example 3 :

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 Solution:
0.04m
d o  40mm  0.04m, ro   0.02m
2
0.03m
d i  30mm  0.03m, ri   0.015m
2
J

32
 4
 4 
d o  d i   0.04 4  0.034   1.72  10  7 m 4
32
Tro
 max 
J
 max J 52  106 Nm  2  1.72  10  7 m 4
T   447.2 Nm
ro 0.02m

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 Example 4
The gears attached to the fixed-end steel shaft are subjected to
the torques shown below. If the shear modulus of elasticity is
80 Gpa and the shaft has a diameter of 14mm, determine the
displacement of the tooth on gear A. The shaft turns freely
within the bearing at B

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Angle of Twist
 33

Angle of Twist
 34

Angle of Twist
 Example 5
SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB
and BC and perform static
equilibrium analyses to find
torque loadings.
• Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer stress on shaft BC.
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm, • Given allowable shearing stress
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid of and applied torque, invert the
diameter d. For the loading shown, determine elastic torsion formula to find the
(a) the minimum and maximum shearing required diameter.
stress in shaft BC, (b) the required diameter d
of shafts AB and CD if the allowable
shearing stress in these shafts is 65 MPa. 35

The Torsional Formula

 SOLUTION :

• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC

and perform static equilibrium analysis
to find torque loadings.

M x  0   6kN  m   TAB
 M x  0   6 kN  m   14 kN  m   TBC
TAB  6kN  m
TBC  20 kN  m
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The Torsional Formula

• Apply elastic torsion formulas to • Given allowable shearing stress and
find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic torsion
stress on shaft BC. formula to find the required diameter.

J
2

 4 4 
2
 
c2  c1   0.060  4   0.045  4   max 
Tc

Tc
65MPa 
6 kN  m
J  c4  c3
2 2
 13.92 10 6 m 4
c  38.9  103 m
TBC c2  20 kN  m  0.060 m 
 max   2   d  2c  77.8 mm
J 13.92 10 6 m 4
 86.2 MPa
 min c1  min 45 mm
 
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm  max  86.2 MPa
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 min  64.7 MPa  min  64.7 MPa
The Torsional Formula
 Example 6
The stress distribution in a solid
shaft has been plotted along three
arbitrary radial lines as shown
below. Determine the resultant
internal torque at the section

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The Torsional Formula

 39

The Torsional Formula

 Example 7
• The shaft shown is supported by two bearings and
is subjected to three torques. Determine the shear
stress developed at points A and B, located at
section a-a of the shaft.

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41
4.3 POWER TRANSMISSION
42
 Power Transmission

Power transmitted by a circular shaft, P - depends upon the magnitude of the

torque and the speed of rotation, . Power is the rate at which work is done.

P=T
where, P is power (watt)
T is torque (Nm)
 is angular speed (rad/s)

The angular speed is often expressed as the frequency, f, of rotation, i.e. the
number of revolutions per second. This means that
 = 2 f
where f is measured in Hetz (Hz) = s-1;

43

123
 Design of Transmission Shaft
• Determine torque applied to shaft at
specified power and speed,
P  T  2fT
P P
T 
 2f
• Designer must select shaft
material and cross-section to
• Find shaft cross-section which will not
exceed the maximum allowable
meet performance specifications
shearing stress,
without exceeding allowable
shearing stress. Tc
 max 
J
P  2fT J  3 T
 c   solid shafts 
N c 2  max
 2   T
 60  J

 4 4
c2 2c2

c2  c1  
T
 max
 hollow shafts
44 

Power Transmission
 Example 8
A solid steel shaft AB shown
is used to transmit 3750 W
from the motor M to which it
is attached. If the shaft rotates
at ω = 175 rpm and the steel
has an allowable shear stress
of τallow = 100MPa,
determine the required
diameter of the shaft to the
nearest mm.

45

Power Transmission
 46

Power Transmission
Example 9:

A 1.6-m long tubular steel shaft (G = 77 GPa) of 42 mm outer

diameter d1 and 30 mm inner diameter d2 is to transmit 90 kW
between a turbine and a generator. Knowing that the allowable
shearing stress is 50 MPa, determine the minimum frequency at which
the shaft may rotate.

47

125
 Example Try :

One of two hollow drive shafts of an ocean liner is 38 m long, and its outer
and inner diameters are 400 mm and 200 mm respectively. The shaft is
made of a steel for which τ (all) = 60 MPa and G = 77 GPa. Knowing that
the maximum speed of rotation of the shaft is 2.75 Hz, determine
(a) the maximum power that can be transmitted by the one shaft to its
propeller,
(b) the corresponding angle of twist of the shaft.

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49
4.5 STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE
PROBLEMS
50
Statically Indeterminate Shaft
• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque reactions
at A and B.
• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,

which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

The problem is statically indeterminate.
• Divide the shaft into two components which
must have compatible deformations,

• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

+ 120 51

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 Procedure of Analysis
Equilibrium
• Draw a free-body diagram
• Write equations of equilibrium about axis of shaft
Compatibility
• Express compatibility conditions in terms of rotational
displacement caused by reactive torques
• Use torque-displacement relationship, such as
 = TL/JG
• Solve equilibrium and compatibility equations for unknown
torques
52

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 Example 10
The solid steel shaft shown below has a diameter of 20 mm. If it
is subjected to the two torque, determine the reactions at the
fixed supports A and B

53

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 54

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 55

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 Example 11
SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between TCD and T0 .
• Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the angular rotations of the gears.
• Find the maximum allowable torque
Two solid steel shafts are connected on each shaft – choose the smallest.
by gears. Knowing that for each • Find the corresponding angle of twist
shaft G = 77 GPa and that the for each shaft and the net angular
allowable shearing stress is 55 MPa, rotation of end A.
determine (a) the largest torque T0
that may be applied to the end of
shaft AB, (b) the corresponding angle 56
through which end A of shaft AB
rotates. 4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.
SOLUTION

• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on • Apply a kinematic analysis to relate

the two shafts to find a relationship the angular rotations of the gears.
between TCD and T0 .

57

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

• Find the T0 for the maximum • Find the corresponding angle of twist for each
allowable torque on each shaft – shaft and the net angular rotation of end A.
choose the smallest.

58

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 Tutorial 1
The steel shaft is made from two segments : AC has a diameter of
10 mm, and CB has a diameter of 20 mm. If it is fixed at its ends A
and B and subjected to a torque of 500Nm, determine the maximum
shear stress in the shaft.

59
 Tutorial 2
A steel tube having an outer diameter of 50mm is used to transmit
25 kW when turning at 2700 rev/min. Determine the inner diameter
d of the tube to the nearest 0.1 mm if the allowable shear stress
is τallow = 70MPa

60
 Tutorial 3
• The steel shaft has a diameter 0f 40 mm and is fixed at its ends
A and b. If it is subjected to the couple, determine the
maximum shear stress in regions AC and CB of the shaft.
Gsteel=80GPa

61
 Tutorial 4
• A stepped shaft of solid circular cross section as
shown in Figure is held against rotation at the ends.If
the allowable stress in shear is 43 MPa, what is the
allowable torque T allow that may be applied to the
shaft at C

62
63
 Tutorial 5
• A circular shaft ABC is driven by a motor at A, which
delivers 300 kW at a rotational speed of 3.2 Hz. The gears
at B and C take out 120 and 180 kW, respectively. The
lengths of the two parts of the shaft are LAB = 1.5 m and
LBC = 0.9 m respectively. Calculate the required diameter of
the shaft if the allowable shear stress is 50 MPa, the
allowable angle of twist in the shaft between points A and
C is 0.02 rad, and G = 75 GPa.

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