Example 4.
3 : Find Vov, Isc and Req
Solution: Apply Voltage Divider as
in Ch. 2
1 1
voc vs 6V
1 R1 / R2 1 R3 / R4
From Figure b Find Req. a common node
X connect R1 parallel R2 and R3 Parallel
R4. By inspection the total resistance from
node A to X and fron node B to X is
Req ( R1 R2 ) ( R3 R4 )
(1 4) (3 2) 2K R1 R3
voc X Voc X
6 / 2 3m A
A B
i sc R2 R4
R eq X A
Voc
B X
Example 4.4 Repeate Example 4.3 but with
a) R1=16kΩ b) R1=6kΩ
Solution: a) After Placing values the Voc is
1 1
voc v s 3V
1 R1 / R2 1 R3 / R4
Indicating that now Node A is more negative
Than B. The Req is now (16 4) (3 2) 4.4K
The Isc is iSC v O C / R eq 3 / 4.4 0.68 m A
Indicating that the Short circuit current now
Is flowing from B to A showing that the i-v line
Now has negative interceots with v & I axis.
b) After placing values the Voc=0V
The Req is
(6 4) (3 2) 3.6K
iSC vOC / Req 0 / 3.6 0 A
Showing that now the i-v curve is passing through the origin.
Note:- The Voc and Isc can be negative or even may be zero.
6
voc 9 (2)(5) 16v Req (3 6) 2 4 K
3 6 A B
3K A Voc B
3K Req Or
Rth
VR
+ 5mA
2K 2K
Vs 6K 6K
9V
CONSTRUCTING THE THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
A R B
VR
A
R
4k
Rth
Fig.b
v(R ) 16
+
B
4 R
Vth
Now by placing any value of R we can find out v( R )
Example 4.7 A bridge is connected to a load. Find the load voltage
and current if the Load is
a) a 1K ohm resistance
b) 10V source with positive terminal at A
c) 2mA source directed from terminal A to B
d) a plain wire
Solution
Applying Thevenin’s theorem
1 1 Rth
voc vs 6V 2K
1 R1 / R2 1 R3 / R4 A
+
Req (R1 R2 ) (R3 R4 ) Vth
Fig.b
Load
6V
(14) (32) 2K B
a) Find Load voltage and current if the Load is 1 KΩ (Apply Ohm’s Law)
voc 6
iL 2 mA
RTh R L 2 1
vL iL RL 2mA.1K 2V
b) 10 V source with +ive terminal at A(Apply KVL)Fig d
vTh voc RTh iL vL
voc vL 6 10
iL 2mA
RTh 2
(We get-2mA shows that now current is flowing from B to A)
c) 2mA source directed from terminal A to B see fig.d
vth iL Req vL vL vTh RTh iL
v L 6 2 k .2 m 6 4 2V
d) Load shorted then VL=0V by Ohm’s Law Fig e
vTh 6
iL 3m A
R eq 2
Example 4.8 If two one ports are connected together at A with C and B
with D so that the Composite circuit of Figure results. Find the
common voltage v. A C
10K 2.5K 2K
+
5V
1mA
+ Vs
8V 30K 0.3mA
v 20K 15K
B D
3K 5K
The circuit could principally be used by Nodal or Mesh analysis but
this will be a tired some game. The much quicker solution is to
replace these two circuits with individual Thevenin equivalents
Separate the left and roght sides as below
A C
10K 2.5K 2K +
5V
1mA
+ Vs
8V 30K 0.3mA 20K 15K
Figure b
D
Figure a B 5K
3K
A
Consider the LHS. Apply 10K 2.5K 2K
Superposition to find Voc + Vs
8V 30K 0.3mA
Figure a B
3K
Suppress current source and apply voltage divider. A
10K 2.5K 2K
30 240 + Vs
v1a 8 6v 8V 30K LHS V1 for
30 10
Figure a
40 Figure a
3K
B
When Voltage source is off. Apply ohm’s Law
v2a {(10 30) 2.5}0.3 10 X 0.3 2 .35 Kv A
10K 2K
voc v1a v2a
v oc 6 3 30K 0.3mA V2 for
Figure a
LHS
v oc 9V
Figure a B
3K
FINDING REQ OF LEFT HAND SIDE
A
Req 10K 2.5K 2K
Req (10 30) 2.5 2 3
LHS Req
Req 15 30K
B
3K
So the Thevenin Equivalent for left hand side is
Rth
15K A
+
LH
Vth S
Figure a
9V
B
NOW TAKE THE RIGHT HAND SIDE OF THE FIGURE AND FIND VOC BY SUPER
C
POSITION +
5V
1mA
Negative terminal of voltage 20K 15K
source is attached to 20k so D
Figure b
5K
v1b 5V C
5V
+
Now for second Figure apply V1 for
Ohms Law Figure
20K 15K
b
For V2b 15k and 5k are in series
C D RHS
Figure b
5K
Common point
20k 15k
C
D 5k
v2b {(15K 5K) 20K}1m 10V 1mA
vTh v1b v2b
V2 for
Figure20K RHS 15K
b
Figure b
D
vTh 5105V 5K
Req=20
C (5+15)=10K S0 the Thevenin Equivalent
Rth
for RHS is
C 10k
Req
+
RH
20K
15K RHS Fig.b
Vth
S 5V
D C
Thevenin Equivalent for whole circuit is
Rth Rth
15k A C 10k
+
+ +
Vth LH Vth
S
v RHS
Fig.b
9V 5V
-
B C
To find v apply superposition
10 15
v v1 v 2 v 15 10 9 15 10 5 v 6.6V
EXERCISE 4.12
Consider the diagram below. Using Norton’s Theorem find Load
voltage and current if the one port is loaded with
a) 2Ω resistance
b) A 4volt source with positive terminal at A
c) A 4 volt source with positive terminal at B
d) an open circuit
A
2
Ohms
+ Vs 20
20V Is 0hms Voc
3A
3
Ohms Figure a B
Solution: 1) Find the Norton Equivalent of the circuit A
2
Find Isc by super position theorem Ohms
From Fig. b + Vs 20
20V 0hms Voc
iSC (1) 20 /(2 3 20 / 5 4 A Is
3A
3
Ohms Figure a B
From Fig c
iSC ( 2 ) 3 A 2
A
2
A
iSC isc (1) iSC (2) 4 3 1A Isc(1) Isc(2)
+
Req From Fig d Vs=20V 20
Fig.c 3A
20
3 Fig.b 3
Re q. (2 3) 20 4 B
A
B
2 A
Norton Equivelent is shown Norton Equivalent
in Fig f. Fig.c
20 4
Fig.e Req 1A
a) The Norton Equivalent is 3 Fig. e
B
B
as in Fig f.
IL by current divider is as
iL [4 /(4 2)]1 0.66 A 2 4
VL BY Ohm’ Lawv iL R 0.66 2 1.32V
1A
L
b) A 4volt source with positive terminal at A
v L 4V
+
IL by superposition from Fig. h &I 4
4V
let us see fig. h first by ohm’s law 1A
v i1 R i1 v / R 4 / 4 1 A Fig.g
A
A
From Fig i i 2 1 A +
i2
i i1 i2 1 1 0 A
4 IL=1A 4
4V
i1
1A
Fig.h Fig.i
c) c) A 4 volt source with B B
positive terminal at A A
Consider Fig. j v L 4V 4V
4
+
iL (1 1) 2 A B
Fig.j
1A
d) d) an open circuit A
Consider Fig k iL 0 A
Since 4Ω is parallel to open circuit Hence 4
1A
v L iR 1 4 4V B
Fig.k
4.4: POWER CALCULATIONS
1) Average Power: When dealing with the practical Power
problems it is of interest to know the Average Power P over a
given interval. This is DC or Steady Power is.
t2
1
P
t 2 t1
t1
p (t ) d t
If p(t) is periodic then interval t1 and t2 coincides with T.
We know Sinusoidal AC Voltage is v ( t ) V m s i n 2 ft
The Instantaneous Power is
p(t ) v(t )i (t ) v(t ).v(t ) / R v 2 (t ) / R (Vm2 / R) sin 2 2 ft
As shown in the figure the
power function oscillate b/w 0
Pmax Vmax
2
/ R and at twice the
frequency of applied voltage,
by inspection the average
power is
P (1/ 2) pmax (1/ 2)Vmax
2
/R
Continue P (1/ 2) pmax (1/ 2)Vmax 2
/ R (Vm / 2) 2 / R P Vrms 2
/R
Or
P Vrms
2
/ R ( I rms Rrms )2 / R P I rms
2
R I rms
2
(Vrms / I rms ) P Vrms Irms
From Ch. 1 we know
V rms V m / 2 0.707Vm and I rms I m / 2 0.707 I m
Vrms and Irms are also called effective values.
t2
1
(t ) dt
2
In general the effective values of time V rm s v
varying voltages v(t) over a certain time t1
t 2 t1
interval t1 to t2 is defined as steady or
DC voltage that over the time interval
would cause a resistance to dissipate the same amount of energy as
v(t). Such Steady voltage are called Vrms. t2
1
(t ) d t
2
I rm s i
Likewise the rms of Current is t 2 t1 t1
In words “ The effective values is
found by squiring the signal,
Computing its average or mean,
and thenSee Examples
taking the square root 4.15, 4.16,
of the result” 4.17, 4.18
Example 4.20 : Find the value of RL in the circuit below for which
power transfer to RL is maximized.
1
What is value
3 A
of PL(max)?
9 A
Solution:
2.5A
We find thevenin Eq. + +
6 RL
3V RL
Remove RL Then 12V
Fig.a 4 Fig. b
using superposition 2
B B
1. For Voc Apply voltage Divider(Fig.b)
6
voc1 12 8V
1 6 2
2. Apply Ohm’s Law(Fig.c)
voc2 [(1 2) 6]2.5 5
3. vth voc1 voc 2 8 5 3V
4. R e q 3 4 [ 6 (1 2 ) ] 9 ( S e e F i g . d )
5. The power transfer to the load will be maximum when RL=9.
6. The maximum power will be
p L (max) vs /(4 Re q ) voc /(4 Re q ) 3 /(4 9) 0.25W
2 2 2
7. Efficiency : the efficiency of the circuit of Fig. b is
RL 9
100 100 0.5 100 50%
R R 99
