ME 231

THERMODYNAMICS 1

ENGR. EMMANUEL M. NADELA (M.ENG’G.ED.)

TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTORY
CONCEPTS
AND DEFINITIONS
THERMODYNAMICS ----- the branch
of physical sciences that is concerned
with the ways energy is stored within a
body and how energy transformations,
which involve heat and work, may take
place.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 TWO APPROACHES
1. MACROSCOPIC APPROACH:
Concerned with the gross or overall behavior of matter
Based on a large no. of molecules
Also termed Classical Thermodynamics

2. MICROSCOPIC APPROACH:
Concerned directly with the molecular structure of
matter
Based on the average behavior of groups of individual
molecules
Also termed Statistical Thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM:
--- comprises a device or
combination of devices
containing a quantity of matter
or a region in space chosen for
study.
 A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM

BOUNDARY
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEM
 CLOSED SYSTEM ( CONTROL MASS) :
NO transfer of mass across its boundary.
 Energy can flow across the boundary.
 OPEN SYSTEM ( CONTROL VOLUME):
Mass and energy can flow across the boundary.
 ISOLATED SYSTEM :
Mass and energy cannot flow across the boundary.
A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

SURROUNDINGS ENERGY

MASS
NO! (CLOSED) SYSTEM
YES! (OPEN)

BOUNDARY
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY:
--- a macroscopic characteristic of
a system such as mass, volume,
pressure and temperature to
which a numerical value can be
assigned at a given time without
knowledge of the previous
behavior (history) of the system.
THERMODYNAMIC STATE:
• refers to the condition of a system as described by its
properties.
• a system is said to be at steady state if none of its
properties changes with time.
• is a point function, i.e., it is defined by at least two
independent properties.
• is defined only when the system is in equilibrium, i.e., no
change in the value of any property of the system.
PROCESS :
• a transformation from one state to another ( a
change in state).
• occurs when any of the properties of a system
change.
• defined only when the system is not in equilibrium.
• defined by its initial and final states.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE:

• a sequence of processes that begins and ends

at the same state.

• at the conclusion (final state) of a cycle all

properties have the same values they had at
the beginning (initial state).
 THERMODYNAMIC
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 SPECIFIC VOLUME

ν = specific volume
ν = volume/mass = V/m = m3/kg
V = total volume, m3
ρ = density
ρ = mass/volume = m/V = kg/ m3
ν = 1/ρ
 SPECIFIC VOLUME
γ = specific weight=weight/vol
γ = Wt/V = mg/V = ρg = N/ m3

s.g. = specific gravity

= γ f / γw
γf = specific weight of fluid
γw = specific weight of water
= 9.81 kN/m3
 EXAMPLE 1
Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500kg/m3, ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) were
poured together into a 100-liter container, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m3 , find the respective amounts of liquids used. Also, find the
weight of the mixture; local g=9.675 m/s2.
 PRESSURE

P = Force/Area = F/A = N/m2 = lbs/in2 (psi)

N/m2 = Pascal (Pa)
kN/m2 = kiloPascal (kPa) = 1,000 Pa
1 Mpa = 1,000 kPa = 106 Pa
1 bar = 100 kPa
MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 BAROMETER = instrument used to measure

atmospheric pressure

 STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

 Patm= 101.325 kPa ( at sea level)
 = 14.7 psi
 ABSOLUTE VS. GAGE PRESSURE
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE --- pressure measured from absolute zero
( the theoretical lower limit where molecules stop moving).
 GAGE PRESSURE --- pressure measured by a gage reckoned from
the local atmospheric pressure.
 VACUUM PRESSURE ( Pvac) --- pressure below atmospheric
pressure; negative gage pressure.

Pabs = Patm ± Pgage

 MANOMETERS
DEFINITION: A pressure-measuring device consisting
of a U-tube and a measuring fluid such as mercury.
P = γh
P = gage pressure
γ = specific weight of the measuring fluid
h = height of the column of measuring fluid
EXAMPLE

If atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the manometer

attached to the tank reads 188 mm Hg vacuum, find the
absolute pressure within the tank. Specific gravity of
mercury is 13.6.
EXAMPLE
The figure shows a tank within a tank, each containing air. Pressure
gage A is located inside tank B and reads 1.4 bar. The U-tube
manometer connected to tank B contains mercury. Using data on
the diagram, determine the absolute pressures inside tank A and
tank B, each in bar. The atmospheric pressure surrounding tank B
is 101 kPa.
 TEMPERATURE
 TEMPERATURE --- measure of hotness/coldness of a body;
indicates how fast the molecules are moving/vibrating.

 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM --- when two bodies attain equal

temperature.
THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY --- a measurable
property that changes as its temperature changes.

THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE --- a particular

substance that exhibits changes in the thermometric
property.
 TEMPERATURE SCALES

THERMOMETRIC TEMPERATURE
SCALE:
°C = 5/9 ( °F – 32 )
°F = 9/5 (°C) + 32
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE :

provides a continuous definition of temperature , valid over all ranges of

temperature, and does not depend on the properties of any particular
substance or class of substances.
K = °C + 273.15
R = °F + 459.67
.
TEMPERATURE SCALES

P
asA
g
B
A gas exerts no gas
pressure when at
absolute zero.
gas C

T (°C)
-273.15 °C 0 °C
EXAMPLE

A new absolute temperature scale is proposed. On this scale

the ice point of water is 150 S and the steam point is 300 S.
Determine the temperatures in ⁰C that correspond to 100 and
400 S, respectively. What is the ratio of the size of S to Kelvin.
ENERGY
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CAN BE STORED)
1. (GRAVITATIONAL) POTENTIAL ENERGY: the energy that an object

possess at a height, z, above some zero reference level.

PE = mgz , Joules

pe = gz , J/kg

m = total mass, kg

g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2

 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CAN BE STORED)

2. KINETIC ENERGY : energy by virtue of velocity

KE = ½mv2, Joules
ke = v2/2, J/kg
v = average velocity, m/s
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CAN BE STORED)

3. INTERNAL ENERGY : the sum of the energies of all

molecules in a system, energies that appear in several
complex forms (mostly kinetic)

U = total internal energy, Joules

u = specific internal energy, J/kg

u = U/m
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CANNOT BE STORED)

WORK
 the product of the displacement of the body
and the component of the force in the direction
of the displacement.

 WORK is energy in transition, i.e., it exists

only when a force is “moving through a
distance”.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR WORK

SURROUNDINGS

Win - SYSTEM Wout +

BOUNDARY
NET WORK
Wnet = ∑ Win - ∑ Wout

TWO FORMS OF NET WORK:

1. Boundary Work ( Wb) --- occurs because the mass of a system causes a force
to act on the boundary either to expand it ( closed system) or to cross it (open
system)

2. Shaft Work (Ws) --- work crossing the boundary in the form of a rotating
shaft or electrical work.
BOUNDARY WORK
BOUNDARY WORK
CLOSED SYSTEM ( NON-FLOW WORK):
 consider a constant pressure process
1 W2 = F x d
1 W2 = pA x ∆s
1 W2 = p x ∆V
In differential form:
δW = p dV
Wnf = ∫pdV = non-flow work
δ = inexact differential ( process dependent)
∫pdV represents the area under the curve in the p-V plane
OPEN SYSTEM ( FLOW WORK):
Wf = flow work
Wf = pA x L
Wf = pL2 x L
Wf = pL3
Wf = pV
SHAFT WORK ( Ws)

THERMODYNAMIC DEFINITION OF WORK:

“ Work is done by a system on its surroundings if
the sole effect on everything external to the
system could have been the raising of a weight.”
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CANNOT BE STORED)

HEAT
 Energy in transit (flowing) from one body or system to
another solely because of a temperature difference
between the bodies or system.
 HEAT

UNITS FOR HEAT

SI SYSTEM:
1 calorie = the amount of heat required to
raise 1 gram of pure water from 14.5⁰C to
15.5⁰ C.

1 cal = 4.1868 J
 HEAT

UNITS FOR HEAT

ENGLISH SYSTEM:
Btu = British Thermal Unit
1 Btu = the amount of heat required to raise
1 lbm of pure water from 59.5⁰F to 60.5⁰F.
1 Btu = 778.17 ft-lbf
SIGN CONVENTION FOR HEAT

SURROUNDINGS

Qin + SYSTEM Qout -

BOUNDARY
 HEAT

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

1. CONDUCTION
 transfer of energy from the more energetic particles to
adjacent particles that are less energetic due to interaction
between particles.

 medium of exchange usually solid

 HEAT

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

2. CONVECTION
 energy is transferred due to bulk motion of the fluid
because of differences in densities within the fluid
 medium of exchange usually a fluid
 HEAT
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

3. RADIATION
 results from changes in the electronic configurations of the
molecules
 energy travels as electromagnetic waves
 no medium required; can take place even in vacuum
To be
continued…….