Module 3
Fluid Mechanics
Pipe Flow
The Entrance Region
Fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity.
No-slip condition, the fluid particles in the layer in contact with the wall
of the pipe come to a complete stop
Adjacent layers also slowed down due to viscous effects
To satisfy the continuity equation the central velocity value increases-
hence the profile!- A velocity gradient is developed between the pipe
walls and the pipe core.
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces
caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called the velocity boundary layer or just
the boundary layer/ Hydrodynamic boundary layer
The Entrance Region
The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two
regions:
• the boundary layer region:- the viscous effects and the velocity
changes are significant, and the
• irrotational (core) flow region: the frictional effects are negligible
and the velocity remains essentially constant in the radial direction.
The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow direction until the
boundary layer reaches the pipe center and thus fills the entire pipe, as shown
in figure above, and the velocity becomes fully developed a little farther
downstream.
The Entrance Region
Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the
point at which the velocity profile is fully developed
The length of this region is called the hydrodynamic entry length Lh.
Flow in the entrance region is called hydrodynamically developing flow
(region where the velocity profile develops.)
Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the
entrance region, in which the velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged.
Velocity profile : parabolic in laminar flow (fully developed region)
: flatter (or fuller) in turbulent flow (eddy motion and
more vigorous mixing in the radial direction.
The Entrance Region
For a hydrodynamically fully developed flow,
Since, the velocity profile remains unchanged in the hydrodynamically fully
developed region, the wall shear stress also remains constant in that region (𝜏w
is related to the slope of the velocity profile)
The wall shear stress is the highest at the pipe inlet where the thickness of the
boundary layer is smallest, and decreases gradually to the fully developed
value.
Correspondingly higher pressure drop at the entrance
Large entrance length results in higher average value of friction factor.
The Entry Length
The entry length depends on the pipe diameter and
Reynolds number
The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be
the distance from the pipe entrance to where the wall
shear stress reaches within about 2 percent of the fully
developed value (and thus the friction factor)
Turbulent flows have entry length less depended on Re
value as compared to that of laminar flow
Also the entry length value is shorter for turbulent flows
For laminar flow, entrance length, L ≈ 138 to 140 D
(pipe dia)
For turbulent flow, entrance length is 25-40 D
Pressure Loss in Internal Flows
Pressure loss in laminar flow,
Expressed in terms of head loss as
Pressure loss for all types of fully developed internal flows
(laminar or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular pipes,
smooth or rough surfaces, horizontal or inclined pipes) as
Named after the Frenchman Henry Darcy (1803–1858) and the
German Julius Weisbach (1806–1871)
Friction factor and Head loss
Pressure loss for all types of fully developed internal flows
Head loss is given by
Friction factor and Head loss
Friction coefficient Cf ,also called the Fanning friction
factor, named after the American engineer John Fanning
(1837–1911)], is defined as
where f is Darcy friction factor
Equating both the previous equations we find the value of f for
laminar flow
It shows that in laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of
the Reynolds number only and is independent of the roughness
of the pipe surface
Friction factor and Head loss
hL : represents the additional height that the fluid
needs to be raised by a pump to overcome the
frictional losses in the pipe.
The head loss is caused by viscosity, and it is
directly related to the wall shear stress
Pumping power
Pumping power required to overcome the pressure loss is given by:
Poiseuille’s law
For a specified flow rate, the
pressure drops and thus the required
pumping power is proportional to the
length of the pipe and the viscosity
of the fluid, but it is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of
the radius (or diameter) of the pipe.
The pumping power requirement for
a laminar-flow piping system can be
reduced by a factor of 16 by
doubling the pipe diameter
Moody Chart
Chezy’s Formula
•
Where m = A/P
i= hf/L (head lost per unit length)
C- Chezy’s constant
Types of Fluid Flow Problems
1. Determining the pressure drop
(or head loss) when the pipe
length and diameter are given
for a specified flow rate (or
velocity)
2. Determining the flow rate
when the pipe length and
diameter are given for a
specified pressure drop (or
head loss)
3. Determining the pipe diameter
when the pipe length and flow
rate are given for a specified
pressure drop (or head loss)
MINOR LOSSES
• The fluid in a typical piping system
passes through various fittings, valves,
bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits,
Head loss due to component is
expansions, and contractions in given by(minor loss):
addition to the pipes.
• These components interrupt the
smooth flow of the fluid and cause
additional losses because of the flow
separation and mixing they induce.
• In a typical system with long pipes,
these losses are minor compared to
the total head loss in the pipes (the
major losses) and are called minor
losses.
• Minor losses are usually expressed in
terms of the loss coefficient KL
MINOR LOSSES
Minor Losses
Examples:
Inlets and Exits;
Enlargements and Contractions;
Pipe Bends;
Valves and Fittings
Piping Networks
Piping Networks
Piping Networks
𝑄˙
1
𝑄˙ 2
Analogy with electrical circuits:
Flow rate () : current (I)
Pressure gradient (Dp) : electrical potential (V)
Head loss (hL): resistance (R), however hL is very nonlinear
Problems:
Problems:
Problems:
SYPHON
Syphon is long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir
at it higher elevation to another reservoir at a lower level when the two
reservoirs are separated by a hill or high level ground
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
As shown in figure two reservoirs A and B are separated by the hill.
In order to transfer liquid from A to B reservoirs,
They are connected by syphon.
The highest point is called summit.
The flow through the siphon is only possible if the pressure at the
point C is below the atmospheric pressure.
Therefore pressure difference will cause the flow of liquid through
syphon
SYPHON
As the point C is above the free surface of the water in the tank A.
the pressure at C will be less than atmospheric pressure.
Theoretically, the pressure at C may he reduced to —10.3 in of
water but in actual practice this pressure is only —7.6 m of
water or 10.3 - 7.6 = 2.7 m of water absolute.
If the pressure at C becomes less than 2.7 m of water absolute,
the dissolved air and other gases would come out from water
and collect at the summit.
The flow of water will be obstructed
SYPHON- Applications
1. To carry water from one reservoir to another reservoir
separated by a hill or ridge.
2. To take out the liquid from a tank which is not having any
outlet.
3. To empty a channel not provided with any outlet sluice
Power Transmission through Pipe
Power is transmitted through pipes by flowing water or other
liquids flowing through them.
The power transmitted depends upon :
The weight of liquid flowing through the pipe and the total
head available at the end of the pipe.
Consider a pipe AB connected to a tank as shown in Fig..
The power available at the end B of the pipe and the condition for
maximum transmission of power can be determined.
Power Transmission through Pipe
In the figure below,
L = length of the Pipe,
d = diameter of the pipe,
H = total head available at the inlet of pipe,
V = velocity of flow in pipe,
hf = loss of head due to friction, and
f = co-efficient of friction
Power Transmission through Pipe
Power Transmission through Pipe
Condition for maximum transmission of power,
Power Transmission through Pipe
Power transmitted through a pipe is maximum when head
loss due to friction could be limited to 1/3rd of total head
at inlet.
Maximum efficiency of power transmission:
Water Hammer in Pipe
Consider a long pipe AB as shown in Fig. connected at one end
to a tank containing water at a height of H from the center of
the pipe. At the other end of the pipe, a valve to regulate the
flow of water is provided.
When the valve is completely open, the water is flowing
with a velocity. V in the pipe.
If now the valve is suddenly closed, the momentum of the
flowing water will be destroyed and consequently a wave
of high pressure will be set up.
Water Hammer in Pipe
This wave of high pressure will be transmitted along
the pipe with a velocity equal to the velocity of sound
wave and may create noise called knocking.
Also this wave of high pressure has the effect of
hammering action on the walls of the pipe and hence it
is also known as water hammer
The pressure rise due to water hammer depends upon :
(i) the velocity of flow of water in pipe,
(ii) the length of pipe,
(iii) time taken to close the valve,
(iv) elastic properties of the material of the pipe.
Water Hammer in Pipe
Let the pipe is rigid and valve fitted at the end B is closed
suddenly.
Let
A = Area of cross-section of pipe AB.
L = Length of pipe.
V = Velocity of flow of water through pipe,
p = Intensity of pressure wave produced.
K = Bulk modulus of water
Water Hammer in Pipe
When the valve is closed suddenly, the kinetic energy of the
flowing water is converted into strain energy of water if the
effect of friction is neglected and pipe wall is assumed perfectly
rigid
