Chapter 15: Basics of Functional
Dependencies and Normalization
for Relational Databases
Chapter Outline
1 Informal Design Guidelines for Relational Databases
1.1Semantics of the Relation Attributes
1.2 Redundant Information in Tuples and Update
Anomalies
1.3 Null Values in Tuples
2 Functional Dependencies (FDs)
2.1 Definition of FD
2.2 Inference Rules for FDs
2.3 Equivalence of Sets of FDs
2.4 Minimal Sets of FDs
Chapter Outline(contd.)
3 Normal Forms Based on Primary Keys
3.1 Normalization of Relations
3.2 Practical Use of Normal Forms
3.3 Definitions of Keys and Attributes Participating in Keys
3.4 First Normal Form
3.5 Second Normal Form
3.6 Third Normal Form
4 BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)
Database Design Approach
Database design may be performed
using two approaches:
bottom-up (Design by synthesis)
top-down (Design by analysis)
Bottom up (Design by
synthesis)
A bottom-up design methodology
(also called design by synthesis)
considers the basic relationships among
individual attributes as the starting
point and uses those to construct
relation schemas.
Top-down Design (By
analysis)
In contrast, a top-down design
methodology (also called design by
analysis) starts with a number of groupings
of attributes into relations that exist together
naturally.
The relations are then analyzed individually
and collectively, leading to further
decomposition until all desirable properties
are met.
Informal Design Guidelines for
Relational Databases (1)
What is relational database design?
The grouping of attributes to form "good" relation
schemas
Two levels of relation schemas
The logical "user view" level
The storage "base relation" level
Design is concerned mainly with base relations
What are the criteria for "good" base
relations?
Informal Design Guidelines for
Relational Databases (2)
We first discuss informal guidelines for good
relational design
Then we discuss formal concepts of functional
dependencies and normal forms
- 1NF (First Normal Form)
- 2NF (Second Normal Form)
- 3NF (Third Normal Form)
- BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)
Additional types of dependencies, further
normal forms for multi-valued attributes
(4NF, 5NF) are also discussed at the end of
chapter.
1.1 Semantics of the Relation
Attributes
GUIDELINE 1: Informally, each tuple in a
relation should represent one entity or
relationship instance. (Applies to individual
relations and their attributes).
Attributes of different entities (EMPLOYEEs, DEPARTMENTs,
PROJECTs) should not be mixed in the same relation
Only foreign keys should be used to refer to other entities
Entity and relationship attributes should be kept apart as much
as possible.
Bottom Line: Design a schema that can be
explained easily relation by relation. The
semantics of attributes should be easy to
interpret.
A simplified COMPANY relational
database schema
Example of Violating Guideline
I
1.2 Redundant Information in Tuples
and Update Anomalies
Mixing attributes of multiple entities may
cause problems
Information is stored redundantly wasting
storage
Problems with update anomalies
Insertion anomalies
Deletion anomalies
Modification anomalies
EXAMPLE OF AN UPDATE
ANOMALY (1)
Consider the relation:
EMP_PROJ ( Emp#, Proj#, Ename, Pname, No_hours)
Update Anomaly: Changing the name of
project # P1 from “Billing” to “Customer-
Accounting” may cause this update to be
made for all 100 employees working on
project P1.
EXAMPLE OF AN UPDATE
ANOMALY (2)
Insert Anomaly: Cannot insert a project unless
an employee is assigned to .
Inversely - Cannot insert an employee unless
an he/she is assigned to a project.
Delete Anomaly: When a project is deleted, it
will result in deleting all the employees who work
on that project. Alternately, if an employee is the
sole employee on a project, deleting that
employee would result in deleting the
corresponding project.
Figure 10.3 Two relation schemas
suffering from update anomalies
Figure 15.4 Example States for EMP_DEPT
and EMP_PROJ
Guideline to Redundant Information
in Tuples and Update Anomalies
GUIDELINE 2: Design a schema that does
not suffer from the insertion, deletion and
update anomalies. If there are any present,
then note them so that applications can be
made to take them into account
1.3 Null Values in Tuples
GUIDELINE 3: Relations should be designed
such that their tuples will have as few NULL
values as possible
Attributes that are NULL frequently could be
placed in separate relations (with the primary
key)
Reasons for nulls:
attribute not applicable or invalid
attribute value unknown (may exist)
value known to exist, but unavailable
1.4 Spurious (Invalid) Tuples
Bad designs for a relational database may result
in erroneous results for certain JOIN operations
The "lossless join" property is used to guarantee
meaningful results for join operations
GUIDELINE 4: The relations should be designed
to satisfy the natural join condition. No spurious
tuples should be generated by doing a natural-
join of any relations.
Review Question
Online users will be asked few MCQs at
the end of each section.
Users who are listening recorded
streaming are advised to pause the
video on each question and think about
the answer before switching to the next
section
The one guideline to be followed
while designing the database is
A database design may be ambiguous.
Unrelated data should be in the same
table so that updating the data will be
easy.
It should avoid/reduce the redundancy.
An entity should not have attributes
The one guideline to be followed
while designing the database is
A database design may be ambiguous.
Unrelated data should be in the same
table so that updating the data will be
easy.
It should avoid/reduce the
redundancy.
An entity should not have attributes
2.1 Functional Dependencies (1)
Functional dependencies (FDs) are used to
specify formal measures of the "goodness" of
relational designs
FDs and keys are used to define normal
forms for relations
FDs are constraints that are derived from
the meaning and interrelationships of the
data attributes
A set of attributes X functionally determines
a set of attributes Y if the value of X
determines a unique value for Y
Functional Dependencies (2)
X -> Y holds if whenever two tuples have the same
value for X, they must have the same value for Y
For any two tuples t1 and t2 in any relation instance
r(R): If t1[X]=t2[X], then t1[Y]=t2[Y]
X -> Y in R specifies a constraint on all relation
instances r(R)
Written as X -> Y; can be displayed graphically on a
relation schema as in Figures. ( denoted by the
arrow: ).
FDs are derived from the real-world constraints on
the attributes
Examples of FD constraints (1)
social security number determines employee
name
SSN -> ENAME
project number determines project name and
location
PNUMBER -> {PNAME, PLOCATION}
employee ssn and project number determines
the hours per week that the employee works
on the project
{SSN, PNUMBER} -> HOURS
Examples of FD constraints (2)
An FD is a property of the attributes in the
schema R
The constraint must hold on every relation
instance r(R)
If K is a key of R, then K functionally
determines all attributes in R (since we never
have two distinct tuples with t1[K]=t2[K])
2.2 Inference Rules for FDs (1)
Given a set of FDs F, we can infer additional
FDs that hold whenever the FDs in F hold
Armstrong's inference rules:
IR1. (Reflexive) If Y subset-of X, then X -> Y
IR2. (Augmentation) If X -> Y, then XZ -> YZ
(Notation: XZ stands for X U Z)
IR3. (Transitive) If X -> Y and Y -> Z, then X -> Z
IR1, IR2, IR3 form a sound and complete
set of inference rules
Inference Rules for FDs (2)
Some additional inference rules that are
useful:
(Decomposition) If X -> YZ, then X -> Y and X -> Z
(Union) If X -> Y and X -> Z, then X -> YZ
(Psuedotransitivity) If X -> Y and WY -> Z, then WX
-> Z
The last three inference rules, as well as any
other inference rules, can be deduced from
IR1, IR2, and IR3 (completeness property)
Review Questions
Question 1
There are two functional dependencies with the same
set of attributes on the left side of the arrow:
A->BC
A->B
This can be combined as
a) A->BC
b) A->B
c) B->C
d) None of the mentioned
Question 1
There are two functional dependencies with the same
set of attributes on the left side of the arrow:
A->BC
A->B
This can be combined as
a) A->BC
b) A->B
c) B->C
d) None of the mentioned
Answer = a
Question 2
2. Which of the following is not
Armstrong’s Axiom?
a) Reflexivity rule
b) Transitivity rule
c) Pseudotransitivity rule
d) Augmentation rule
Question 2
2. Which of the following is not
Armstrong’s Axiom?
a) Reflexivity rule
b) Transitivity rule
c) Pseudotransitivity rule
d) Augmentation rule
Answer = c
3 Normal Forms Based on Primary
Keys
3.1 Normalization of Relations
3.2 Practical Use of Normal Forms
3.3 Definitions of Keys and Attributes
Participating in Keys
3.4 First Normal Form
3.5 Second Normal Form
3.6 Third Normal Form
3.1 Normalization of Relations (1)
Normalization: The process of decomposing
unsatisfactory "bad" relations by breaking up
their attributes into smaller relations
Normal form: Condition using keys and FDs
of a relation to certify whether a relation
schema is in a particular normal form
Normalization of Relations (2)
2NF, 3NF, BCNF based on keys and FDs of a
relation schema
4NF based on keys, multi-valued
dependencies : MVDs; 5NF based on keys,
join dependencies : JDs
3.2 Practical Use of Normal Forms
Normalization is carried out in practice so that the
resulting designs are of high quality and meet the
desirable properties
The practical utility of these normal forms becomes
questionable when the constraints on which they are
based are hard to understand or to detect
The database designers need not normalize to the
highest possible normal form. (usually up to 3NF,
BCNF or 4NF)
Denormalization: the process of storing the join of
higher normal form relations as a base relation—
which is in a lower normal form
3.3 Definitions of Keys and Attributes
Participating in Keys (1)
A superkey of a relation schema R = {A1, A2,
...., An} is a set of attributes S subset-of R
with the property that no two tuples t1 and t2
in any legal relation state r of R will have t1[S]
= t2[S]
A key K is a superkey with the additional
property that removal of any attribute from K
will cause K not to be a superkey any more.
Definitions of Keys and Attributes
Participating in Keys (2)
If a relation schema has more than one key,
each is called a candidate key. One of the
candidate keys is arbitrarily designated to be
the primary key, and the others are called
secondary keys.
A Prime attribute must be a member of
some candidate key
A Nonprime attribute is not a prime
attribute—that is, it is not a member of any
candidate key.
3.2 First Normal Form
Disallows composite attributes,
multivalued attributes, and nested
relations; attributes whose values for
an individual tuple are non-atomic
Considered to be part of the definition
of relation
Figure 15.8 Normalization into 1NF
Solutions for Normalization
Remove the attribute Dlocations that violates 1NF and
place it in a separate relation DEPT_LOCATIONS along
with the primary key Dnumber of DEPARTMENT.
Expand the key so that there will be a separate tuple in
the original DEPARTMENT relation for each location of a
DEPARTMENT, as shown in Figure 15.9(c).
If a maximum number of values is known for the
attribute—for example, if it is known that at most three
locations can exist for a department—replace the
Dlocations attribute by three atomic attributes:
Dlocation1, Dlocation2, and Dlocation3.
Normalization nested relations into 1NF
First normal form also disallows
multivalued attributes that are
themselves composite.
These are called nested relations
because each tuple can have a relation
within it.
EMP_PROJ(Ssn, Ename, {PROJS(Pnumber,
Hours)})
Normalization of Nested
Relations
Normalization of more than
one multi-valued attributes
existence of more than one multivalued attribute
in one relation must be handled carefully. As an
example, consider the following non-1NF relation:
PERSON (Ss#, {Car_lic#}, {Phone#})
This relation represents the fact that a person has
multiple cars and multiple phones. If strategy 2
above is followed, it results in an all-key relation:
PERSON_IN_1NF (Ss#, Car_lic#, Phone#)
Second Normal Form (1)
Uses the concepts of FDs, primary key
Definitions:
Prime attribute - attribute that is member
of the primary key K
Full functional dependency - a FD Y -> Z
where removal of any attribute from Y means
the FD does not hold any more
Examples: - {SSN, PNUMBER} -> HOURS is a full FD since
neither SSN -> HOURS nor PNUMBER -> HOURS hold
- {SSN, PNUMBER} -> ENAME is not a full FD (it is called
a partial dependency ) since SSN -> ENAME also holds
Second Normal Form (2)
A relation schema R is in second
normal form (2NF) if every non-prime
attribute A in R is fully functionally
dependent on the primary key
R can be decomposed into 2NF
relations via the process of 2NF
normalization
Figure 15.11 Normalizing into 2NF and
3NF
3.4 Third Normal Form (1)
Definition:
Transitive functional dependency - a FD
X -> Z that can be derived from two FDs X -> Y and
Y -> Z
Examples:
- SSN -> DMGRSSN is a transitive FD since
SSN -> DNUMBER and DNUMBER -> DMGRSSN hold
- SSN -> ENAME is non-transitive since there is no
set of attributes X where SSN -> X and X -> ENAME
Third Normal Form (2)
A relation schema R is in third normal form
(3NF) if it is in 2NF and no non-prime attribute
A in R is transitively dependent on the primary
key
R can be decomposed into 3NF relations via the
process of 3NF normalization
NOTE:
In X -> Y and Y -> Z, with X as the primary key, we consider this a
problem only if Y is not a candidate key. When Y is a candidate key,
there is no problem with the transitive dependency .
E.g., Consider EMP (SSN, Emp#, Salary ).
Here, SSN -> Emp# -> Salary and Emp# is a candidate key.
Normalization to 3NF
Summary
Example
4 BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)
A relation schema R is in Boyce-Codd
Normal Form (BCNF) if whenever a nontrivial
FD X -> A holds in R, then X is a superkey of R
Each normal form is strictly stronger than the previous
one
Every 2NF relation is in 1NF
Every 3NF relation is in 2NF
Every BCNF relation is in 3NF
There exist relations that are in 3NF but not in BCNF
The goal is to have each relation in BCNF (or 3NF)
Figure 15.13 Boyce-Codd normal form
Figure 15.14 a relation TEACH that is in
3NF but not in BCNF
Achieving the BCNF by Decomposition (1)
Two FDs exist in the relation TEACH:
fd1: { student, course} -> instructor
fd2: instructor -> course
{student, course} is a candidate key for this relation and
that the dependencies shown follow the pattern in Figure
10.12 (b). So this relation is in 3NF but not in BCNF
A relation NOT in BCNF should be decomposed so as to
meet this property, while possibly forgoing the
preservation of all functional dependencies in the
decomposed relations.
Achieving the BCNF by Decomposition (2)
Three possible decompositions for relation TEACH
1. {student, instructor} and {student, course}
2. {course, instructor } and {course, student}
3. {instructor, course } and {instructor, student}
All three decompositions will lose fd1. We have to settle for sacrificing
the functional dependency preservation. But we cannot sacrifice the non-
additivity property after decomposition.
Review Questions
In the __________ normal form, a
composite attribute is converted to
individual attributes.
a) First
b) Second
c) Third
d) Fourth
Review Questions
In the __________ normal form, a
composite attribute is converted to
individual attributes.
a) First
b) Second
c) Third
d) Fourth
Answer = a
Review Questions
Tables in second normal form (2NF):
a) Eliminate all hidden dependencies
b) Eliminate the possibility of a insertion
anomalies
c) Have a composite key
d) Have all non key fields depend on
the whole primary key
Review Questions
Tables in second normal form (2NF):
a) Eliminate all hidden
dependencies
b) Eliminate the possibility of a insertion
anomalies
c) Have a composite key
d) Have all non key fields depend on
the whole primary key
Answer = a
Review Questions
A table on the many side of a one to
many or many to many relationship
must:
a) Be in Second Normal Form (2NF)
b) Be in Third Normal Form (3NF)
c) Have a single attribute key
d) Have a composite key
Review Questions
A table on the many side of a one to
many or many to many relationship
must:
a) Be in Second Normal Form (2NF)
b) Be in Third Normal Form (3NF)
c) Have a single attribute key
d) Have a composite key
Answer = d
Assignment 03
Problem 15.19, 15.30, and 15.31 (Page
537 & 538 + 540) from Text book
“Fundamentals of Database Systems
(6th edition) by Ramez Elmasri and
Shamkant B. Navathe”
Due date: Monday (April 27th, 2020)
