Syntax
Questions? Comments?
Midterms back
Chapter 5 Exx: 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 (Give surface and deep structure for
11 – no trees) due 5/15
Problem Set 4 due 5/20
Goals for syntax chapter
Not responsible for Section 4 (Verb raising) or how to do passive
sentences
You should know how to do the following:
identify the lexical/syntactic category of word
construct phrases and simple sentences and sentences with embedded
sentences (draw trees for these structures)
apply different movement operations to derive surface structure
forms from deep structure
Determine how a sentence is structurally ambiguous (from Ch 6 – 3.2)
Syntax
Slide 1 Syntax
Syntax
The part of the grammar that combines words into sentences
The study of the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence
formation.
The goal of syntax is to come up with universal principles (Universal
Grammar) that describes all languages phrase formation procedures
Syntax is responsible for the hierarchical structure of phrases and their
creation
The goal of syntactic theory is to be boring and repetitive (i.e. systematic
and universal)
Think of syntax as a template for sentence formation that can operate for all
sentences for all languages
Syntax
Slide 2 Syntax
Syntax
Syntactic Categories
Lexical categories: Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and
Adverb (Adv)
Nonlexical Categories: Determiner (Det); Auxiliary Verb (Aux) - Modal
and Nonmodal; Conjunction (Con); Degree word (Deg)
Table 5.1, p. 157 (on next slide)
Harder to define nonlexical words (the or so compared to hill or book)
Some words can belong to more than one category - examples? like/fond
Syntax
Slide 3 Syntax
Syntax
Syntax
Slide 4 Syntax
Syntax
Lexical: Nonlexical:
words that have semantic content words that have grammatical function
words that can be inflected words that do not have morphology
an open class to which new words that resist change
members can be added a closed class to which new members
includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, are not added
adverbs and prepositions includes determiners, auxiliary verbs,
degree words, qualifiers, pronouns,
conjunctions, complementizers, and
particles
Syntax
Slide 5 Syntax
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – MEANING TEST
Noun = person, place or thing (Jeff, classroom, book)
Verb = action, sensation, state of being (run, loves, sees, be)
Adjective = describes a noun (green, ugly)
Adverb = describes a verb (quickly, slowly)
Preposition = describes physical location (to, for, from, on, in)
Syntax
Slide 6 Syntax
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – INFLECTION TEST
Only certain inflectional suffixes attach to certain lexical categories
There are some words that belong to these syntactic categories that do not
take these suffixes (*funner, *intelligenter)
Category Inflectional Examples
Affix
N (Noun) plural -s books, chairs, doctors
possessive -’s John’s, (the) man’s
V (Verb) past tense -ed arrived, melted, hopped
progressive -ing arriving, melting, hopping
3rd person sing. -s arrives, melts, hops
A comparative -er taller, faster, smarter
(Adjective)
Syntax
Slide 7 Syntax
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – DISTRIBUTION - SPECIFIERS
Determiner = specifies a noun (the, a, these, that)
Adverbs = specifies a verb (always, often, never)
Degree = specifies an adjective or preposition (very, quite, really)
So you can tell a N if it can occur after a Det
A V can occur with an Aux verb
An Adjective with a degree word
Look at Exercise 2
Syntax
Slide 8 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure - units of words, but not sentences = phrases
Each phrase consists of the head, a specifier and a complement
The way the book groups phrases is called X' (X bar) where X stands for
whatever category you’re dealing with (Noun, Verb, Adjectives, Prepositions)
XP
(Specifier) X'
X (Complement)
head
Syntax
Slide 9 Syntax
Syntax
Noun phrases (NP)
presidents - contains only the head noun
the presidents - contains a specifier and head noun
presidents of the USA - contains the head N and a complement
prepositional phrase
the presidents of the USA - contains a specifier, head N, complement PP
The complement PP of the USA contains the head P of and a complement
NP. The NP the USA contains the specifier and head N
Syntax
Slide 10 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Specifiers can occur before the head (in English) and are optional (they
attach at the Phrase level)
NP
N'
Det N
the presidents
Syntax
Slide 11 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Complements can occur after the head (in English) and are optional
(they attach to the Bar level)
Syntax
Slide 12 Syntax
Syntax
Verb Phrases (VP)
sings - contains only the head verb
often sings - contains a specifier and head verb
sings a ballad - contains the head V and a complement NP
often sings a ballad - contains a specifier, head V, complement NP
The complement NP a ballad contains the head N ballad and specifier a.
Syntax
Slide 13 Syntax
Syntax
Adjective Phrases (AP)
happy - contains only the head adjective (A)
very happy - contains a specifier and head A
happy with the results - contains the head A and a complement PP
very happy with the results - contains a specifier, head A, complement PP
The complement PP with the results contains the head P and complement
NP the results. The NP contains specifier and head N.
Syntax
Slide 14 Syntax
Syntax
Prepositional Phrases (PP)
in - contains only the head preposition (P)
almost in - contains a specifier and head P
in the car - contains the head P and a complement NP
almost in the car - contains a specifier, head P, complement NP
The complement NP the car contains the head N and specifier.
Syntax
Slide 15 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase structure rules
The preceding examples show that any given phrase can be composed of a
mandatory head and optional complement and optional specifier. This is
written as:
XP (Spec) X (Comp)
The optional components are written in ( )s.
From previous examples we have the following:
NP (Det) N (PP) AP (Deg) A (PP)
VP (Adv) V (NP) PP (Deg) P (NP)
Can you think of any other possibilities?
Syntax
Slide 16 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure
The heads of a phrase are mandatory
NP
N'
dog
Syntax
Slide 17 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Specifiers can occur before the head (in English) and are optional
NP
N'
Det N
the dog
Syntax
Slide 18 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Complements can occur after the head (in English) and are optional
NP
N' s are only used when it is not necessary
to show the internal structure of that phrase.
Assume that it is NOT OK to use s.
Det N PP
the dog in the house
Syntax
Slide 19 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
XP (specifier) X (complement)
NP
N'
Det N PP
the dog in the house
Syntax
Slide 20 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
AP Deg A
AP
A'
Deg A
quite happy
Syntax
Slide 21 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
VP Adv V
VP
V'
Adv V
always eats
Syntax
Slide 22 Syntax
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
PP P NP PP
P'
P NP
on
Det N'
the N
couch
Syntax
Slide 23 Syntax
VP Syntax
VP Deg V PP; PP P NP
V' PP
Adv V MERGE P'
always eats P NP
on
Det N'
the N
couch
Syntax
Slide 24 Syntax
VP Syntax
VP Deg V PP; PP P NP
V'
Adv V PP
always eats P'
P NP
on
Det N'
the N
couch
Syntax
Practice 25 Syntax
Syntax Practice
For each of the following phrases, determine the head of the phrase, any
specifiers, and any complements.
Head Specifier Complement
the rat rat the
in the barn in the barn
very small small very
awfully cute cute awfully
swept the floor swept the floor
the poem about love poem the about love
Syntax
Practice 26 Syntax
Syntax Practice
Draw phrase structure trees for the following: Click here for answers
1. the rat
2. men
3. in the barn
XP
4. really mean (Specifier) X'
5. ran
6. ran into the shed X (Complement)
head
7. rather boring
8. hate those pancakes
9. the denial of the accusation
Exercises 3 and 4
Syntax
Slide 27 Syntax
Simple sentences
The sentence or IP is the highest level in the sentence structure. Inflected Phrase
These elements are mandatory for an English Sentence.
IP NP (subject ) I' (inflection)
I' I VP (predicate)
I + or - Past and/or a Modal
Lines will never intersect
NP to the left
VP to the right
Syntax
Slide 28 Syntax
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees. (in appendix of chapter)
• Step 1 - assign each word to the appropriate category.
Syntax
Slide 29 Syntax
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 2 – working from right to left (for English), write the
appropriate phrasal structure. Specifiers go directly to XP
level.
Syntax
Slide 30 Syntax
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 3 – There is no complement for the NP that man so move on to the
previous VP. The NP is a complement for the VP so attach the NP to V'
Syntax
Slide 31 Syntax
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 4 – The VP is not a complement of the NP. Draw the final
NP.
Syntax
Slide 32 Syntax
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 5 – Connect the predicate VP and the subject NP as the
complement and specifier (respectively) of IP
Syntax
Slide 33 Syntax
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students hated the book
IP
I'
NP VP
N' V'
NP
N'
I
Det N +Pst V Det N
The students hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 34 Syntax
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students will hate the book
IP
I'
NP VP
N' V'
NP
N'
I
Det N - Pst V Det N
The students will hate the textbook
Syntax
Slide 35 Syntax
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The housewives kept the secrets
IP
I'
NP VP
N' V'
NP
N'
I
Det N +Pst V Det N
The housewives kept the secrets
Syntax
Slide 36 Syntax
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The housewives can keep the secrets
IP
I'
NP VP
N' V'
NP
N'
I
Det N - Pst V Det N
The housewives can keep the secrets
Syntax
Practice 37 Syntax
“Simple” sentences
Practice drawing trees for the following sentences
• Dogs should always go for a walk.
• !Those monsters were hiding under the bed.
• Abner concealed the document.
• Marge usually watches the sunset.
• !The children are playing with a dinosaur.
! Difficult – we will discuss (hint: these structures have verbs that take a
complement VP)
Syntax
Practice 38 Syntax
Syntax
Practice 39 Syntax
Syntax
Practice 40 Syntax
Syntax
Practice 41 Syntax
Syntax
Practice 42 Syntax
Syntax
Slide 43 Syntax
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Think about this sentence
I wonder if she will take the test.
How do we incorporate the second sentence: she will take the test?
This second sentence (called a complement clause or CP) is serving as the
complement of the V wonder
Like all other syntactic structures, CPs consist of: CP C ' and C ' C IP
Words such as that, whether and if are known as complementizers (C).
The specifier position is open for Move operations (discussed later)
Matrix clauses are the largest clause that contain the CP(s)
[I wonder [if she will take the test.]]
Syntax
Slide 44 Syntax
Example of a complement clause
Syntax
Practice 45 Syntax
Practice (No Triangles!)
Nancy believes that aliens exist.
Sailors know that the ship could sink.
!The tourists hope that whales
will be swimming near the boat.
(!very difficult!)
Exercise 9 (No Triangles!)
a) The reporter said that an accident injured the woman.
b) The fishermen think that the company polluted the bay.
c) Bill reported that a student asked whether the eclipse would occur.
Syntax
Practice 46 Syntax
Syntax
Practice 47 Syntax
Syntax
Practice 48 Syntax
Syntax
Slide 49 Syntax
A Bit Theoretically Bizarre
If we want to keep the structures the same
for the theory (templates), then it is
posited that all IPs are actually CPs
with or without a C (like we have I
whether or not it actually gets filled
with a surface form).
Syntax
Slide 50 Syntax
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Identify the CP (Complement Phrase) in the following matrix sentences. Put
brackets [ ] around the CP.
1.) The teacher hopes [that hard]..
that the students will study hard
2.) The janitor wondered [if clean]..
if the floor would stay clean
3.) The floor knew [that
that it would not stay clean
clean]..
Syntax
Slide 51 Syntax
Structural Ambiguity
We have been presenting different phrase structure trees to show the
hierarchy and relationship of the different phrases in a sentence. What
happens when the difference in the relationship of these phrases also
causes a difference in the meaning/interpretation of a sentence?
When there are two or more interpretations of one sentence with the exact
same words in the exact same order, we call this structural ambiguity
(discussed in your text in Chapter 6, section 3.2).
Syntax
Slide 52 Syntax
Structural Ambiguity
For example: Sam ate the cake in the kitchen. (See handout for answers)
What are the 2 meanings? What is the relationship between the phrases
in the sentence (what modifies what?)
Interpretation 1: Sam ate the cake that was in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the N cake
Interpretation 2: Sam was eating the cake in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the V ate
Syntax
Slide 53 Syntax
Structural Ambiguity
Interpretation 1: Sam ate the cake that was
in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The
PP in the kitchen modifies the N cake
Interpretation 2: Sam was eating the cake in
the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP
in the kitchen modifies the V ate
Syntax
Slide 54 Syntax
Structural Ambiguity
Brings us to more complicated Phrase
structure trees.
See examples to right for non-modal aux
verbs that take VP complement
Syntax
Slide 55 Syntax
Structural Ambiguity
Brings us to more complicated Phrase structure trees.
See page 164 for a verb with 2 complements.
Syntax
Slide 56 Syntax
Subcategorization
Fancy term for what complements any XP can or must take
Verbs that can take a complement are transitive (eat, read, look) She read a book
Verbs that do not are intransitive (sleep, lie, laugh) He slept
See Table 5.5, p. 163 for what complements certain verbs can take
Syntax
Slide 57 Syntax
Questions?
Following our rules for sentence structure how do we
account for questions?
Is the man intelligent?
Can you come to dinner?
In the first example, there is no NP to the left of the IP
and in the second, the modal is before the subject.
To explain this we will use the theory of:
Deep Structure.
Syntax
Slide 58 Syntax
Deep Structure
Accounting for sentences such as questions and passives with
a new set of rules would be messy.
Transformational grammar accounts for the differences with
transformations (move). All sentences in deep structure
(before the move) will follow our previous phrasal rules.
{Parallel with Underlying Representation and rules to derive
surface representation in Phonology}
How do we know deep structure exists?
Syntax
Slide 59 Syntax
Arguments for Deep Structure
What will you say?
In this sentence What is functioning as the object of the
sentence.
This can be demonstrated by trying to add an object after the
verb.
* What will you say goodbye.
In this sentence, the verb requires an object, so omitting it in
the non-question form does not work
* You will say
Syntax
Slide 60 Syntax
Arguments for Deep Structure
Deep structure for this sentence is
You will say what?
To arrive at deep structure
Merge -> Deep Structure
Deep Structure -> Move
Surface structure
Surface structure trees must show traces of unit’s original
position.
Syntax
Slide 61 Syntax
D-Structure and S-Structure
Syntax
Slide 62 Syntax
Movement
2 types of movement:
Inversion (yes/no question)
That guy should eat an apple Should that guy t eat an apple?
Wh- Movement + Inversion
the students should read what for class What should the students t read t for class?
Syntax
Slide 63 Syntax
Movement - Inversion
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I
Det N -pst V
that student should study
Syntax
Slide 64 Syntax
Movement - Inversion
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I I
-pst Det N -pst V
should that student t study
Syntax
Slide 65 Syntax
Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I
Det N +pst V
that student did studied
study
Syntax
Slide 66 Syntax
Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I I
+pst Det N +pst V
did that student t study
Syntax
Slide 67 Syntax
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I
Det NP
N -pst V
N'
that student should study
N
syntax
Syntax
Slide 68 Syntax
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I I
-pst Det N -pst V NP
should that student t study N'
syntax
Syntax
Slide 69 Syntax
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' V'
I I
Det NP
-pst
N -pst V
N'
should that student t study
N
what
Syntax
Slide 70 Syntax
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
NP C'
C IP
+Q
I'
NP VP
N' N' V'
I I
Det NP
N -pst
N -pst V
N'
what should that student t study
N
t
Syntax
Slide 71 Syntax
Practice Identifying D-Structure & S-Structure
In order to get the deep structure from the surface structure, follow these steps:
YOU SEE: YOU THINK: YOU DO:
A modal auxiliary verb Inversion has taken Put the modal aux back into its deep
ahead of the subject. place. structure position in I.
A wh word or phrase. Wh Movement had Examine each verb in the sentence.
taken place. Determine if a verb is missing either
subject or an object, and put the wh
word or phrase into that position.
Examine each preposition in the
sentence. Determine if a preposition
is missing an object. Put the wh word
or phrase into that position.
Syntax
Practice 72 Syntax
Deep structure Surface structure
Can a dog bark? a dog can bark can a dog t bark
Will the students be bored?
the students will be bored will the students t be bored
Will the trip be enjoyable?
the trip will be enjoyable will the trip t be enjoyable
Who can see the shore?
who can see the shore who can t t see the shore
Exercise 11
