

1
Keywords
Tokens in C
 These are reserved words of the C language. For example int, float, if,
else, for, while etc.
 Identifiers
 An Identifier is a sequence of letters and digits, but must start with a letter. Underscore
( _ ) is treated as a letter. Identifiers are case sensitive. Identifiers are used to name
variables, functions etc.
 Valid: Root, _getchar, __sin, x1, x2, x3, x_1, If
 Invalid: 324, short, price$, My Name
 Constants
 Constants like 13, ‘a’, 1.3e-5 etc.

Lectures on Numerical Methods


2
String Literals
Tokens in C
 A sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes as “…”. For example “13” is a string
literal and not number 13. ‘a’ and “a” are different.
 Operators
 Arithmetic operators like +, -, *, / ,% etc.
 Logical operators like ||, &&, ! etc. and so on.
 White Spaces
 Spaces, new lines, tabs, comments ( A sequence of characters enclosed in /* and */ ) etc.
These are used to separate the adjacent identifiers, kewords and constants.

Lectures on Numerical Methods


3
Integral Types
Basic Data Types
 Integers are stored in various sizes. They can be signed or unsigned.
 Example
Suppose an integer is represented by a byte (8 bits). Leftmost bit is sign bit. If the sign
bit is 0, the number is treated as positive.
Bit pattern 01001011 = 75 (decimal).
The largest positive number is 01111111 = 2 7 – 1 = 127.
Negative numbers are stored as two’s complement or as one’s complement.
-75 = 10110100 (one’s complement).
-75 = 10110101 (two’s complement).

Lectures on Numerical Methods

4 Basic Data Types

 Integral Types
 char Stored as 8 bits. Unsigned 0 to 255.
Signed -128 to 127.
 short int Stored as 16 bits. Unsigned 0 to 65535.
Signed -32768 to 32767.
 int Same as either short or long int.
 long int Stored as 32 bits. Unsigned 0 to 4294967295.
Signed -2147483648 to 2147483647

Lectures on Numerical Methods

 5 Basic Data Types
 Floating Point Numbers
 Floating point numbers are rational numbers. Always signed numbers.
 floatApproximate precision of 6 decimal digits .
 Typically stored in 4 bytes with 24 bits of signed mantissa and 8 bits of signed exponent.

 double Approximate precision of 14 decimal digits.

 Typically stored in 8 bytes with 56 bits of signed mantissa and 8 bits of signed exponent.

 One should check the file limits.h to what is implemented on a particular machine.

Lectures on Numerical Methods

 6 Constants
 Numerical Constants
 Constants like 12, 253 are stored as int type. No decimal point.
 12L or 12l are stored as long int.
 12U or 12u are stored as unsigned int.
 12UL or 12ul are stored as unsigned long int.
 Numbers with a decimal point (12.34) are stored as double.
 Numbers with exponent (12e-3 = 12 x 10-3 ) are stored as double.
 12.34f or 1.234e1f are stored as float.
 These are not valid constants:
25,000 7.1e 4 $200 2.3e-3.4 etc.

Lectures on Numerical Methods


7
Character
Constants
and string constants
 ‘c’ , a single character in single quotes are stored as char.
Some special character are represented as two characters in single quotes.
‘\n’ = newline, ‘\t’= tab, ‘\\’ = backlash, ‘\”’ = double quotes.
Char constants also can be written in terms of their ASCII code.
‘\060’ = ‘0’ (Decimal code is 48).
 A sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes is called a string constant or string
literal. For example
“Charu”
“A”
“3/9”
“x = 5”

Lectures on Numerical Methods

8 Variables

 Naming a Variable
 Must be a valid identifier.
 Must not be a keyword
 Names are case sensitive.
 Variables are identified by only first 32 characters.
 Library commonly uses names beginning with _.
 Naming Styles: Uppercase style and Underscore style
 lowerLimit lower_limit
 incomeTax income_tax

Lectures on Numerical Methods

9 Declarations

 Declaring a Variable
 Each variable used must be declared.
 A form of a declaration statement is
data-type var1, var2,…;
 Declaration announces the data type of a variable and allocates appropriate
memory location. No initial value (like 0 for integers) should be assumed.
 It is possible to assign an initial value to a variable in the declaration itself.
data-type var = expression;
 Examples
int sum = 0;
char newLine = ‘\n’;
float epsilon = 1.0e-6;

Lectures on Numerical Methods

10 Global and Local Variables

 Global /* Compute Area and Perimeter of a

/* Compute
circle */Area and Perimeter of a
circle */
Variables #include <stdio.h>
#include
float pi =<stdio.h>
3.14159; /* Global */
float pi = 3.14159; /* Global */
 These variables are main() {
main()
float { rad; /* Local */
declared outside all float rad; /* Local */
functions.
printf( “Enter the radius “ );
 printf( “Enter
scanf(“%f” the radius “ );
, &rad);
Life time of a global scanf(“%f” , &rad);
variable is the entire
execution period of the if ( rad > 0.0 ) {
if ( rad
float > 0.0
area ) {
= pi * rad * rad;
program. float peri = 2 * *
float area = pi pirad * rad;
* rad;
float peri = 2 * pi * rad;
 Can be accessed by any printf( “Area = %f\n” , area );
function defined below printf( “Peri
printf( “Area == %f\n”
%f\n” ,, peri
area );
);
the declaration, in a } printf( “Peri = %f\n” , peri );
file. }
else
else
printf( “Negative radius\n”);
printf( “Negative radius\n”);
printf( “Area = %f\n” , area );
} printf( “Area = %f\n” , area );
}

Lectures on Numerical Methods

11 Global and Local Variables

 Local Variables /* Compute Area and Perimeter of a

/* Compute
circle */Area and Perimeter of a
circle */
#include <stdio.h>
 These variables are #include
float pi =<stdio.h>
3.14159; /* Global */
float pi = 3.14159; /* Global */
declared inside some
functions. main() {
main()
float { rad; /* Local */
 float rad; /* Local */
Life time of a local
variable is the entire printf( “Enter the radius “ );
printf( “Enter
scanf(“%f” the radius “ );
, &rad);
execution period of the scanf(“%f” , &rad);
function in which it is if ( rad > 0.0 ) {
defined. if ( rad
float > 0.0
area ) {
= pi * rad * rad;
 float peri = 2 * *
float area = pi pirad * rad;
* rad;
Cannot be accessed by float peri = 2 * pi * rad;
any other function. printf( “Area = %f\n” , area );
printf( “Peri
printf( “Area == %f\n”
%f\n” ,, peri
area );
);
 In general variables } printf( “Peri = %f\n” , peri );
declared inside a block }
else
are accessible only in else
printf( “Negative radius\n”);
that block. printf( “Negative radius\n”);
printf( “Area = %f\n” , area );
} printf( “Area = %f\n” , area );
}

Lectures on Numerical Methods


12 Operators
Arithmetic Operators
 +, - , *, / and the modulus operator %.
 + and – have the same precedence and associate left to right.
3 – 5 + 7 = ( 3 – 5 ) + 7  3 – ( 5 + 7 )
3 + 7 – 5 + 2 = ( ( 3 + 7 ) – 5 ) + 2
 *, /, % have the same precedence and associate left to right.
 The +, - group has lower precendence than the *, / % group.
3 – 5 * 7 / 8 + 6 / 2
3 – 35 / 8 + 6 / 2
3 – 4.375 + 6 / 2
3 – 4.375 + 3
-1.375 + 3
1.625

Lectures on Numerical Methods


13 Operators
Arithmetic Operators
 % is a modulus operator. x % y results in the remainder when x is divided by y and is
zero when x is divisible by y.
 Cannot be applied to float or double variables.
 Example
if ( num % 2 == 0 )
printf(“%d is an even number\n”, num)’;

else
printf(“%d is an odd number\n”, num);

Lectures on Numerical Methods


14 Type Conversions
The operands of a binary operator must have a the same type and the result is also of the
same type.
 Integer division:
c = (9 / 5)*(f - 32)
The operands of the division are both int and hence the result also would be int. For correct
results, one may write
c = (9.0 / 5.0)*(f - 32)
 In case the two operands of a binary operator are different, but compatible, then they are
converted to the same type by the compiler. The mechanism (set of rules) is called
Automatic Type Casting.
c = (9.0 / 5)*(f - 32)
 It is possible to force a conversion of an operand. This is called Explicit Type casting.
c = ((float) 9 / 5)*(f - 32)

Lectures on Numerical Methods

 15 Automatic Type Casting
1. char and short operands are converted to int Hierarchy
2. Lower data types are converted to the higher data types and result Double
is of higher type.
float
3. The conversions between unsigned and signed types may not yield
intuitive results. long
4. Example Int
float f; double d; long l;
int i; short s; Short and
d + f f will be converted to double char
i / s s will be converted to int
l / i i is converted to long; long result

Lectures on Numerical Methods


16 Explicit Type Casting
The general form of a type casting operator is
 (type-name) expression
 It is generally a good practice to use explicit casts than to rely on automatic type
conversions.
 Example
C = (float)9 / 5 * ( f – 32 )
 float to int conversion causes truncation of fractional part
 double to float conversion causes rounding of digits
 long int to int causes dropping of the higher order bits.

Lectures on Numerical Methods

17 Precedence and Order of
evaluation

Lectures on Numerical Methods

18 Precedence and Order of
evaluation

Lectures on Numerical Methods

19 Operators

 Relational Operators
 <, <=, > >=, ==, != are the relational operators. The expression
operand1 relational-operator operand2
takes a value of 1(int) if the relationship is true and 0(int) if
relationship is false.
 Example
int a = 25, b = 30, c, d;
c = a < b;
d = a > b;
value of c will be 1 and that of d will be 0.

Lectures on Numerical Methods

20 Operators

 Logical Operators
 &&, || and ! are the three logical operators.
 expr1 && expr2 has a value 1 if expr1 and expr2 both are
nonzero.
 expr1 || expr2 has a value 1 if expr1 and expr2 both are
nonzero.
 !expr1 has a value 1 if expr1 is zero else 0.
 Example
 if ( marks >= 40 && attendance >= 75 ) grade =
‘P’
 If ( marks < 40 || attendance < 75 ) grade =
‘N’

Lectures on Numerical Methods

21 Operators

 Assignment operators
 The general form of an assignment operator is
 v op= exp
 Where v is a variable and op is a binary arithmetic operator. This
statement is equivalent to
 v = v op (exp)
 a = a + b can be written as a += b
 a = a * b can be written as a *= b
 a = a / b can be written as a /= b
 a = a - b can be written as a -= b

Lectures on Numerical Methods

22 Operators

 Increment and Decrement Operators

 The operators ++ and –- are called increment and decrement operators.
 a++ and ++a are equivalent to a += 1.
 a-- and --a are equivalent to a -= 1.
 ++a op b is equivalent to a ++; a op b;
 a++ op b is equivalent to a op b; a++;
 Example
Let b = 10 then
(++b)+b+b = 33
b+(++b)+b = 33
b+b+(++b) = 31
b+b*(++b) = 132

Lectures on Numerical Methods

23 Floating Point Arithmetic

 0.d1d 2  p B
e
 dRepresentation
 All floating point numbers are stored as

 such that d1 is nonzero. B is the base. p is the precision or number of

significant digits. e is the exponent. All these put together have finite number
of bits (usually 32 or 64 bits ) of storage.
 Example
 Assume B = 10 and p = 3.
 23.7 = +0.237E2
 23.74 = +0.237E2
 37000 = +0.370E5
 37028 = +0.370E5
 -0.000124 = -0.124E-4

Lectures on Numerical Methods

24 Floating Point Arithmetic

 Representation
 Sk = { x | Bk-1 <= x < Bk }. Number of elements in each Sk is same. In
the previous example it is 900.
 Gap between seuccessive numbers of Sk is B k-p.
 B1-p is called machine epsilon. It is the gap between 1 and next
representable number.
 Underflow and Overflow occur when number cannot be represented
because it is too small or too big.
 Two floating points are added by aligning decimal points.
 Floating point arithmetic is not associative and distributive.

Lectures on Numerical Methods