CSIR – Central Electrochemical Research Institute

TYPES OF MATERIALS

Dr.S.M.Ganesan, Senior Scientist

Corrosion and Materials Protection Division
CSIR- CECRI, Karaikudi
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Crystal Structures

BCC - Body Centered Cubic

FCC – Face Centered Cubic
HCP - Hexagonal Close Packed

Coordination Number
BCC – 8
FCC – 12
HCP - 12

Packing factor
BCC – 0.68
FCC – 0.74
HCP – 0.74

BCC – Li, Na, K, V, W, Ferrite - Fe

FCC – Al, Cu, Ag, Ir, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag
HCP –Ti, Mg, Zn, Zr
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Fundamentals in Metal/Alloy System
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

 Carbon dissolves least in α-ferrite (BCC), i.e. 0.02% at 723°C.

 Carbon solubility in γ-iron (FCC) is maximum, 2.11% at 1147°C.
 Carbon solubility in δ-ferrite (BCC) is 0.1% at 1495°C.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Pure iron upon heating exhibits two allotropic changes,

1) α-ferrite (BCC) transforming to γ-austenite (FCC) iron, at 910°C.
2) γ-austenite (FCC) changes to BCC phase known as δ -ferrite at 1400°C, which
finally melts at 1536°C.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Fe-C system constitutes four invariant reactions:

1) Peritectic reaction at 1495°C, 0.16% C, δ-ferrite + L ↔ γ-iron

(austenite)

2) Monotectic reaction 1495°C, 0.51% C, L ↔ L + γ-iron (austenite)

3) Eutectic reaction at 1147°C, 4.3% C, L ↔ γ-iron + Fe3C (cementite)

[ledeburite]

4) Eutectoid reaction at 723°C, 0.8% C, γ-iron ↔ α-ferrite + Fe3C

(cementite) [pearlite]

 Product phase of eutectic reaction is called ledeburite

 Product from eutectoid reaction is called pearlite
 During cooling to room temperature, ledeburite transforms
into pearlite and cementite.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

A typical optical microstructure of a pearlite in an Fe–C–Mn steel

Pearlite is in reality not a single phase, but a micro-constituent

having alternate thin layers of α-ferrite (~88%) and Fe3C
cementite (~12%)
 STEEL
According to Fe-C phase diagram,

All binary Fe–C alloys < 2.11 wt% C are classified as

steels,
All those containing higher carbon content are termed
cast iron.

Note:
 Pure Iron at room temperature shall have 0.008% C
with α-ferrite (BCC) structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
Steels can be classified by different systems depending on,

a) Compositions : Carbon (or non-alloy), low-alloy and alloy steels

b) Manufacturing methods (converter, electric furnace or electroslag remelting
Methods)
c) Application or main characteristic (structural, tool, stainless steel or heat resistant
Steels)
d) Finishing methods (hot rolling, cold rolling, casting, controlled rolling and
controlled cooling)
e) Product shape (bar, plate, strip, tubing or structural shape)
f) Oxidation practice employed (rimmed, killed, semi-killed and capped steels)
g) Microstructures (ferritic, pearlitic, martensitic and austenitic)
h) Required strength level, as specified in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
standards
i) Heat treatments (annealing, quenching and tempering, air cooling (normalization)
and thermo-mechanical processing)
j) Quality descriptors and classifications, such as forging quality and commercial quality

Among the above classification systems, chemical composition is the most widely used.
Alloying Elements
In addition to carbon, plain carbon steels contain the following other
elements: Mn up to 1.65%, S up to 0.05%, P up to 0.04%, Si up to 0.60%, and
Cu up to 0.60%.

According to the effect on matrix, alloying elements can be divided into two
categories,
a) Austenite stabilizers which encouraging the formation of austenite (Ni, Co,
Mn, Cu, C, and N)
b) b) Ferrite Stabilizers (Si, Cr, W, Mo, P, Al, Sn, Sb, As, Zr, Nb, B, S, and Ce)

Alloying elements can be divided into two categories according to the

interaction with carbon in steel,

c) Carbide-forming elements, such as Mn, Cr, Mo, W, V, Nb, Ti, and Zr. They go
into solid solution in cementite at low concentrations. At higher
concentrations, they form more stable alloy carbides.
d) Noncarbide-forming elements, such as Ni, Co, Cu, Si, P, and Al. They are
free from carbide in steels, and normally found in the matrix.
Alloying Elements
Alloying Elements
TTT DIAGRAM
TTT DIAGRAMS
TTT diagram stands for “time-temperature-transformation”
diagram. It is also called isothermal transformation diagram.
TTT diagrams give the kinetics of isothermal transformations.

From TTT Diagram we can get the following,

 Nature of transformation-isothermal or athermal (time
independent) or mixed
 Type of transformation-reconstructive, or displacive Rate of
transformation
 Stability of phases under isothermal transformation
conditions
 Temperature or time required to start or finish
transformation
 Qualitative information about size scale of product
 Hardness of transformed product
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
 Ful
l An
nea
ling n
910 C

a tio Acm
No li z
rm aliz m a
r
A3 atio
n No

723C Full Annealing

A1

Spheroidization Stress Relief Annealing


T Recrystallization Annealing

Wt% C
0.8 %
Full Annealing

 The purpose of this heat treatment is to obtain a material with high ductility. A microstructure
with coarse pearlite (i.e. pearlite having high interlamellar spacing) is endowed with such
properties.
 The range of temperatures used is given in the figure below.
 The steel is heated above A3 (for hypo-eutectoid steels) & A1 (for hyper-eutectoid steels) → (hold) → then the
steel is furnace cooled to obtain Coarse Pearlite.
 Coarse Pearlite has low (↓) Hardness but high (↑) Ductility.
 For hyper-eutectoid steels the heating is not done above Acm to avoid a continuous network of
proeutectoid cementite along prior Austenite grain boundaries (presence of cementite along grain boundaries
provides easy path for crack propagation).

910C Acm

A3

723C Full Annealing

A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
Recrystallization Annealing

 During any cold working operation (say cold rolling), the material becomes harder (due to
work hardening), but loses its ductility. This implies that to continue deformation the material
needs to be recrystallized (wherein strain free grains replace the ‘cold worked grains’).
 Hence, recrystallization annealing is used as an intermediate step in (cold) deformation
processing.
Heat
 To belowthis
achieve A1 →theSufficient
sample is time →below
heated Recrystallization
A1 and held there for sufficient time for
recrystallization to be completed.

910C Acm

A3

723C
Recrystallization Annealing A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
Stress Relief Annealing

 Due to various processes like quenching (differential cooling of surface and interior),
machining, phase transformations (like martensitic transformation), welding, etc. the residual
stresses develop in the sample. Residual stress can lead to undesirable effects like warpage of
the component.
 The annealing is carried out just below A1 , wherein ‘recovery*’ processes are active
(Annihilation of dislocations, polygonization).

Residual stresses → Heat below A1 → Recovery

Annihilation of dislocations,
polygonization

910C
Differential cooling

Machining and cold working 723C

Stress Relief Annealing A1

Martensite formation

T

Welding
Wt% C
0.8 %
Spheroidization Annealing

 This is a very specific heat treatment given to high carbon steel requiring extensive
machining prior to final hardening & tempering. The main purpose of the treatment is to
increase the ductility of the sample.
 Like stress relief annealing the treatment is done just below A 1.
 Long time heating leads cementite plates to form cementite spheroids. The driving force for
this (microstructural) transformation is the reduction in interfacial energy.

910C Acm

A3

723C
Spheroidization A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
NORMALIZING
 The sample is heat above A3 | Acm to complete Austenization. The sample is then air cooled to
obtain Fine pearlite. Fine pearlite has a reasonably good hardness and ductility.
 In hypo-eutectoid steels normalizing is done 50C above the annealing temperature.
 In hyper-eutectoid steels normalizing done above Acm → due to faster cooling cementite does
not form a continuous film along GB.
 The list of uses of normalizing are listed below.
910C Acm

A3

723C
A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %

Refine grain structure prior to hardening

Purposes To harden the steel slightly

To reduce segregation in casting or forgings

HARDENING
 The sample is heated above A3 | Acm to cause Austenization. The sample is then quenched at a
cooling rate higher than the critical cooling rate (i.e. to avoid the nose of the CCT diagram).
 The quenching process produces residual strains (thermal, phase transformation).
 The transformation to Martensite is usually not complete and the sample will have some
Heat above
retained A3 | Acm → Austenization → Quench (higher than critical cooling rate)
Austenite.
 The Martensite produced is hard and brittle and tempering operation usually follows
hardening. This gives a good combination of strength and toughness.

910C Acm

A3

723C Full Annealing

A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
Through hardening of the sample
 The surface is affected by the quenching medium and experiences the best possible cooling
rate. The interior of the sample is cooled by conduction through the (hot) sample and hence
experiences a lower cooling rate. This implies that different parts of the same sample follow
different cooling curves on a CCT diagram and give rise to different microstructures.
 This gives to a varying hardness from centre to circumference. Critical diameter (d c) is that
diameter, which can be through hardened (i.e. we obtain 50% Martensite and 50% pearlite at
the centre of the sample).

Schematic showing variation

in cooling rate from surface
to interior leading to
different microstructures
Typical hardness test survey made along a
diameter of a quenched cylinder
Schematic of Jominy End Quench Test

Jominy hardenability test Variation of hardness along a Jominy bar

(schematic for eutectoid steel)
 Hardenability should not be confused with the ability to obtain high hardness. A material
with low hardenability may have a higher surface hardness compared to another sample
with higher hardenability.
 A material with a high hardenability can be cooled relatively slowly to produce 50%
martensite (& 50% pearlite). A material with a high hardenability has the ‘nose’ of the CCT
curve ‘far’ to the right (i.e. at higher times). Such a material can be through hardened easily.

 Hardenability of plain carbon steel can increased by

alloying with most elements (it is to be noted that this is
an added advantage as alloying is usually done to
improve other properties).
 However, alloying gives two separate ‘C-curves’ for
Pearlitic and Bainitic transformations (e.g. figure to the
right).
 This implies that the ‘nose’ of the Bainitic
transformation has to be avoided to get complete
TTT diagram of low alloy steel (0.42%
Martensite on quenching. C, 0.78% Mn, 1.79% Ni, 0.80% Cr,
0.33% Mo)
U.S.S. Carilloy Steels, United States
Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, 1948)
Tempering  ' ( BCT ) Temper

 ( BCC ) Fe3C (OR)

Martensite Ferrite Cementite

 A sample with martensitic microstructure is hard but brittle. Hence after quenching the
sample (or component) is tempered. Maternsite being a metastable phase decomposes to
ferrite and cementite on heating (providing thermal activation).
 Tempering is carried out just below the eutectoid temperature (heat → wait→ slow cool).
 In reality the microstructural changes which take place during tempering are very complex.
 The time temperature cycle for tempering is chosen so as to optimize strength and
toughness. E.g. tool steel has a as quenched hardness of Rc65, which is tempered to get a
hardness of Rc45-55.
MARTEMPERING & AUSTEMPERING
 These processes have been developed to avoid residual stresses generated during quenching.
 In both these processes Austenized steel is quenched above Ms (say to a temperature T1) for
homogenization of temperature across the sample.
 In Martempering the steel is then quenched and the entire sample transforms simultaneously
to martensite. This is followed by tempering.
 In Austempering instead of quenching the sample, it is held at T1 for it to transform to
bainite.

800
Eutectoid temperature
723 Austenite
Pearlite
600
 + Fe3C
500 Pearlite + Bainite

T →
400 Bainite

300 T1
Ms
200 Austempering
Mf
100
Martempering Martensite

0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105

t (s) →