SOIL

Objectives
describe the terms soils and soil profile
Relate soils and rocks
Soil formation

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Soil
Soil forms the thin surface layer of the earths crust,
it can be defined as the unconsolidated minerals and
organic materials on the earths surface, often
characterized by horizon or layers, that serves as
natural medium for the growth of plants and
therefore the support of animal life on land

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 Soil Formation
1ststage in soil formation is the
accumulation of a layer of
loose,broken,unconsolidated parent
materials known as regolith. Regolith
may be derived from either in situ,
weathering of bedrock(ie the parent or
underlying rock)or from materials that
has been transported from elsewhere and
deposited eg.alluvium,glacial drift, loess 3

or volcanic ash.
 Components of soil

Soil is made up of 4 parts: mineral matter, organic

matter, water, and air.
Mineral matter and organic matter together form
the solid part of soil. Soil air and soil water
occupy the spaces between the solid particles.
This space is the pore space. The maximum
amount of water soil can hold is referred to as
Field Capacity 4
Soil formation cont.…….
2ndstage ,the formation of true soil or
top soil results from the addition of
water, gases ,(air)living organism
(Biota)and decayed organic
matter(Humus)

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Most of the soil solids will be mineral matter that is
made up of particles of sand, silt, and clay. A small part
of the solids will be organic matter. Most agricultural
soils have somewhere around 2 - 5% organic matter.
Organic matter is mostly made up of decomposed plant
litter and roots.

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 Soil Components
Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient
management.
The basic components of soil are:
 Minerals/Nutrients 45%,
 Organic matter 5%,
 Water 25% and
 Air 25%. 7
Factors for soil formation
Soil characteristics develop as a result
of their origin and environment. Soil
begins as a particular rock material and
develops slowly over many years.
Each soil is a product of a combination
of the following factors.
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 Of the five soil-forming factors , two of them,
climate and organisms, are called active factors.
They are catalysts that cause soil to form. The
other three, parent material, topography, and
time, are called passive factors. They respond to
the forces exerted by climate and organisms

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 Climate
 Climate affects soil most directly through temperature and
rainfall. In warm, moist climates, rocks and minerals weather
rather quickly. Temperature affects the rate or speed of
chemical activity, the kind of vegetation, and biological
(pertaining to living organisms) activity. The temperature and
seasonal distribution of rainfall, therefore, have a great
influence on the kinds of plants that grow and how rapidly
plant residues are decomposed and incorporated into the soil.
Average annual rainfall and temperature may or may not be
good indicators of soil formation.
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 High intensities of rainfall and high temperature during short
periods may be the dominating factors. Rainfall causes leaching,
or the removal of soil materials by water flowing through the
soil. The amount of water moving down through the soil also
affects the movement of clay particles into the subsoil.

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 Topography
• Topography: refers to the “lay of the land” or the
angle & length of the slope. Topography influences
soil formation through its effect on drainage, runoff,
erosion, and exposure to sunlight and wind. It causes
localized changes in moisture and temperature.
It also may affect the type & amount of plant growth
(biggest factor in determining type & amount of
organic matter)
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 Soils on hilltops are drier than soils at the bottom
of hillslopes. When rain falls on a hillslope, for
example, water runs down from the top of the
hill. Excess water collects at the bottom of the
hill. The drier soils at the top are quite different
from the wetter soils at the bottom, even if both
soils form under the same overall conditions of
climate, organisms, parent material, and time

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 Slope influences the amount of runoff, the rate of water
infiltration, the rate of leaching, the movement of clay, and the
thickness of the developed soil. In steep areas, runoff is rapid
and very little water passes through the soil. As a result, soil
formation is slow. In gently sloping areas, runoff is slow,
erosion is minimal, and most of the water passes through the
soil. The infiltration of water intensifies leaching, translocation
of clay, and other soil-forming processes.

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 Topography

Steep slopes
High runoff rates
Less water infiltration
Fewer plant forms
Less organic matter
Increased erosion
Thinner surface soil
Slower formation/development 15
 Topography
Level to Gentle slope
Little runoff
Increased water infiltration
Faster plant growth leading to more organic matter
Less erosion
Deeper surface soil
Faster formation/development
Excessive water can slow development 16
Organism (biota): Plants, animals, microscopic
organisms, and humans interact with soil in different ways
Plants have the most important affect because they
determine the type & amount of organic matter.
Animals & insects mix and aerate the soil as well as
add organic matter.

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 Time
 Time is the great equalizer. Young soils inherit the properties of
their parent materials. They tend to have the color, texture, and
chemical composition of their parent materials. Later on, the
influence of parent material is not as evident. The influence of
time will vary with the kind of parent material. Some parent
materials weather faster than others. Also, climate may change
over time.

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 Time
Soils usually take a long time to form, perhaps up to
400 years for 10 mm and under extreme condition,
1000 years for 1 mm, it cane take 3000 to 12000 years
to produce a sufficient depth of mature soil for farming.
The time taken for mature soil to develop depends
primarily on parent material and climate.

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Time
Young soils
Volcanic or alluvial in origin
Have greater fertility
Have poorly developed profiles
Usually they are highly productive.

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Cont. …..

Oldsoils
Have well developed soil profiles
Have an increased clay content
More acid pH
Nutrients are leached
Lower fertility & productivity than younger soils .

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 Conclusion

 The five factors of soil formation are so closely

interrelated in their effects on the soil that few
generalizations can be made about the effect of
any one factor unless conditions are specified for
the other four. Soil-forming factors are not
always present in the same intensity and degree;
thus, there are many differences in soils.
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 summary

 The active factors of soil formation (climate and organisms),

together with the passive factors (parent material, topography,
and time) are so closely interrelated in their effects on the soil
that few generalizations can be made unless conditions are
known for all of them. The soil-forming processes (additions,
losses, translocations, and transformations) add further
variability.
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Cont.….
 Soils that formed at the same time from the same parent
material can be different. For example, soils at the bottom
of a hill are different from soils at the top or sides of a hill.
Rainwater infiltrates the soil at the top of the hill, but the
slope causes the water to rush down the sides of the hill as
runoff. Soils at the bottom of the hill will be wetter and
more developed than soils on the top or the adjacent
slopes.

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Summary cont.……

 Another factor to consider is the aspect of the

hill. Soils on southerly aspects will be drier than
those on northerly aspects. Additionally, in areas
with both high rainfall and hot temperatures, soil
materials weather faster than those in cool, dry
areas. This explanation provides insight to the
many differences in soils.
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 THE

END

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