AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS

(Second Law Analysis)

R.Varaprasada Rao
Faculty: Mechanical Engineering
Vasavi College of Engineering
Hyderabad – 500 031
A powerful approach to study the effectiveness of thermodynamic
processes / cycles which form the software for Thermal Engineering
Systems.

What are these Thermal Engineering Systems ?

 Power producing
 Power consuming
 Facilitating certain non-cyclic processes
What do we aim at from thermodynamic angle for
these Thermal Engineering Systems ?

 To optimise methods for converting various forms of

energy into work.
 To optimise use of work interactions to bring about desired
results.
 To minimise the loss of work potential of a system even in
the absence of work interactions.
 For this exercise, we need a brief review of the I &
II Laws

 First Law of Thermo-dynamics:

 Principle of conservation of energy, that the total amount of
energy is constant.
 Does speak of quantities of energy but fails to recognise its
quality.
 Does not forbid complete conversion of energy absorbed as
heat into work by a system.
 Introduces a property called energy.
 Second Law of Thermo-dynamics:
 Recognises quality of energy.
 Even the same quantity of heat at different temperatures have different
qualities.
 Gradation between types of energies. Work and heat belong to different
grades as energy.
 Called Law of degradation of energy since all practical processes result in
degradation of energy.
 Need of a thermo-dynamic cycle (due to Sadi Carnot) for continuous
conversion of heat to work.
 Introduces the concept of entropy.
 Provides tools for evaluating:
 Feasibility of a thermo-dynamic cycle.
 Feasibility of a thermo-dynamic process.
 Claims of different inventors, based on the limits set for conversion.
 Effectiveness of thermo-dynamic cycles based on availability concept.
For a thermodynamic process to take place, what do we
need:

 Satisfying the I Law is only a necessary condition

 But the sufficient condition lies in satisfying the II Law

 The II law explains why spontaneous processes take place only in

one direction.

 While the I Law says energy is conserved quantity-wise, it is the

II Law which emphasizes that energy always degrades quality-

wise.
What do you mean by QUALITY ?

 The quality of energy is the potential of that energy to produce

maximum useful work in a given environment.

 Quality is used in the sense of degree of usefulness to society.

GRADATION OF ENERGY:
Sources of energy could be classified into two groups:
 High grade energy  Low grade energy

Mechanical work Heat / Thermal energy

Electrical work derived either from
Water power combustion or from
Wind power nuclear reactions
Kinetic Energy of Jet
Tidal power
 The conversion of high grade energy to shaft work is exempt
from the limitations of the second law.

 But the conversion of low grade energy cannot escape from

the limitations of second law.
What are the Limitations of the II Law ?

 Need for a cyclically operating device

 Inability to convert 100% of source energy to the desired effect.

Having been exposed to the concepts of the I & II
Laws, one should recognise that

 During energy transfers / transformations, energy is both

conserved and degraded.

 Energy conservation typically means reduction in energy usage

(my understanding: with minimise wastage).

 And of equal importance is the need to reduce degradation of

energy during its use.
Thus applying simultaneously both the I & II Laws of
Thermodynamics, led to the formulation of

AVAILABLE ENERGY

A concept originated with Josia Willard Gibbs, a celebrated

thermodynamicist.
It could be proved easily that

 between two specified end states, a reversible process involves the most
favoured work interaction and thus quality of energy does not suffer.

 work is a higher grade energy and could be completely converted to heat

if required even without the need for a cyclically operating device.

 heat, being a lower grade energy for conversion to work, requires a

cyclically operating device and even in ideal operation could not convert
completely to work.

 heat through finite temperature difference fails to qualify as reversible

and under such transactions suffers in quality.
 But real processes do present irreversibilities. To develop a
general equation to evaluate work interactions in the presence of
such irreversibilities, is the real need.

 Such an equation helps us quantify the concept of work potential

or quality, for closed and open systems.
Before such an exercise is undertaken, it may however
be observed that:

 The I Law contains work term, but no energy term to account for
irreversibilities.

 The II Law does contain a term for irreversibilities (the entropy

generation term) but no term is specifically written in terms of work.

and thus, it becomes necessary to

 Link up the I and II Laws through common terms in order to develop an

expression directly relating work to entropy generation.
 This formulation finally gives the reversible work for an open system
while exchanging heat with the surroundings:
 Wrev =  W +  Wc
=  W +  Q [ (T0/T) – 1 ]
= dm1 (h1 – T0s1 + V12/2 + gZ1) - dm2 (h2 – T0s2 + V22/2 + gZ2)
- d[m(u – T0s + V2/2 + gZ)]
{ using the relationships Wc = Q [ (T0/T) – 1 ] and
dS = ( Q / T) + (dm1s1 – dm2s2) + dSgen
entropy change of entropy transfer entropy transport entropy generated
control volume

Since the heat transfer is rendered reversible, dSgen = 0 and

Q / T = dS – (dm1s1 – dm2s2) }
. .
This equation, leads to , for steady flow systems
Wrev = m { b1 + (V12/2) + gZ1) - b2 + (V22/2) + gZ2) }
where (h – T0s) is designated b

. .
and
Wrev = m ( 1 - 2) where  = (b + V2/2 + gZ), to be later called availability

. .
If the changes in KE and PE are negligible, it reduces to
Wrev = m ( b1 - b2) and
Wrev = (H1 – H2) – T0 (S1 – S2)
and per unit mass
Wrev = b1 - b2
= (h1 – h2) – T0 (s1 – s2)
On similar lines, for a closed system
Wrev = ( E1 – T0 S1) – ( E2 – T0 S2)
If the changes in KE and PE are neglected, as is generally done with
closed systems,
Wrev = (U1 – T0 S1) – (U2 - T0 S2)
Per unit mass of working fluid
Wrev = (u1 – u2) – T0 (s1 – s2)
= (u1 – T0s1) – (u2 – T0s2)
LOW GRADE ENERGY

 That part of low grade energy which is available for conversion is referred
to as Available Energy.
 The part which according to the second law, must be rejected, is known as
Unavailable Energy.
 Maximum work obtainable from a cyclically operating device called Heat
Engine with a heat input of Q1
Q1 = Available Energy + Unavailable Energy
Wmax (Heat Engine) = Wrev = max Q1 = rev Q1 = ( 1 – (T0 / T1)) Q1
= Q1 – T0 s
where T0 & T1 are temperatures of surroundings and the heat
reservoir respectively.
 If heat exchange is with a finite heat capacity reservoir,
Wmax = xQy – T0 sx,y
It is worthwhile noting that:
 Available energy provides the useful measure of energy quality.

 With reversible heat transfer, available energy does not decrease.

 Available energy decreases when heat transfer takes place through finite
temperature difference or irreversibly.

 Available energy decreases with the temperatures of heat source.

 An awareness of energy quality is essential for efficient use of energy

resources and for energy conservation.

 Increased awareness of the limited nature of world’s energy resources caused

countries to be examine their energy policy to cut down wastage and sparked
interest in the scientific community to reexamine the energy conversion
devices to develop new techniques for better utilisation of resources.
USEFUL WORK
 The portion of energy spent in pushing out the atmosphere will not be
available for delivery

Wu, max = Wmax - p0 ( V2 – V1)

 Not applicable to steady flow devices, cyclic devices and rigid tanks
where Wu, max = Wmax
DEAD STATE
What final state will make the reversible work maximum ?
It is the dead state.
 When the system and its environment are in thermo-dynamic equilibrium
with each other, it is set to be in its dead state
 The numerical values of T0, p0 recommended for the dead state are those
of the standard environment (T0 = 298.15 K and p0 = 101.325 kPa)
 Additional requirements for the dead state
Velocity of closed system / fluid stream = 0
Gravitational potential energy = 0
 Subscript 0 is used to indicate the dead state
AVAILABILITY

 The work potential of a system relative to its dead state which exchanges
heat solely with the environment is called Availability, as used in US in
1940’s.

 Its is referred to as Exergy as was popular in Europe in 1950’s and is

accepted globally.

AVAILABILITY FUNCTIONS

 Availability function is a composite property

of the system and its surroundings.
AVAILABILITY FUNCTIONS

 flow  = (h – T0s + V2 / 2 + gZ)

For steady flow:

Availability =  - 0 where V0 = 0

Wmax = i mi i - e me e with more than one stream at inlet and exit

= 1 - 2

= b1 – b2 with negligible changes in KE & PE

where b = h – T0s is called Darrieus function

 Non flow:
flow  = u + p 0v – T0 s

Availability = 1 - 0

Wu,max = 1 - 2
 Availability functions (Contd…)
The quantities u (s,v)
h (s,p) a = u – Ts and g = h – Ts
a (v,T)
and g (T,p) are called thermo-dynamic potentials and
extensive properties and changes in
them under certain conditions give the work
potential

 W  [ a1 - a2 ]T indicates upper limit for work done in any non flow

process during which a system has initial and final temperatures equal to
that of surroundings.
 Wu  [ G1 – G2 ]P,T it sets the
upper limit for the useful work
obtainable from a system undergoing
a non flow constant temperature and
constant pressure process ( such as a
chemical reaction taking place in an
open vessel).

 Availability Transfer:
• accompanying work, Aw = Wu
= W – p0 (v2 – v1) or W

• accompanying heat, AQ = [ 1-
(T0 / T) ] Q
IRREVERSIBILITY

I = Wrev – W act
= To Suniv applies to both flow and non-flow processes

 It indicates lost work or loss in capacity of producing work when

irreversibilities are present.
 A thermodynamically efficient processs, would involve minimum energy loss
with minimum rate of entropy generation.
 Effects: 1) less irreversibility, more reversible – less loss of availability –
conservation and effective use of availability resources.
2) Less irreversibility – economic angle – optimum design concepts.
 Gouy-Stodola theorem states that the rate of loss of Exergy in a process is
proportional to the rate of entropy generation.
SECOND LAW EFFICIENCY:

 First Law Efficiency are ratios of selected energy quantities like

Thermal Efficiency and Coefficient of Performance
 Realised that the usefulness of energy is more realistically described by
its Exergy / Availability.
 A performance parameter for a process based on availability concept is
therefore more appropriate
 Second Law Efficiency or Exertic Efficiency or
Second Law Effectiveness or simply Effectiveness, 
is select at as performance parameter
 A First Law Efficiency gauges how well energy is used where as
effectiveness indicates how well Exergy is used.
SECOND LAW EFFICIENCY (Contd…)

minimum exergy intake to perform a task

 II = or
actual exergy intake to perform the same task

Availability recovered
=
Availability supplied

 Typical second law efficiency definitions:

• Refrigerator  = Exergy change required to operate a Carnot refrigerator
for a given rate of refrigeration
Exergy change now required
• Heat exchanger = Exergy change of the system
Exergy change of the source
• Heat Engine = Minimum Exergy change required for the network delivered
Exergy change required by actual engine
MATCHING END USE TO SOURCE:
 Excessive temperature gap between Tr the temperature at which energy
received from the source and Ta the temperature at which energy is used
causes a low second law efficiency and inefficient energy utilisation.
 The heat rejected from high temperature applications can then be cascaded
to low temperature applications, eventually to the task of, say, keeping a
building warm. This is called energy cascading.
 Energy cascading ensures more efficient energy utilisation.
AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS : CASE STUDIES

1) Air heating
2) S.I.Engine Operation
3) Rankine cycle
Graphical accounting of availability
4) Brayton cycle through Sankey or Band Diagrams
5) Vapour compression cycle
 Alternatives for an air heater
We wish to evaluate the heating to 1.0 lbm/s of air in a constant pressure
process from 500F to 1200F using four types of heaters.
a) Condensing steam at 1 atm with a change from saturated vapor to
saturated liquid
b) Using hot water entering the heat exchanger at 200 0F and leaving at
1500F
c) Using hot water entering the heat exchanger at 150 0F and leaving at
1000F
d) Using an electric heater

Irreversibility
Decrease in
Actual work
Heating Alternative availability,
output, Btu/s Btu/s kW
Btu/s

Steam, 1 atm, 2120F 3.1035 0 3.1035 3.274

Hot water, 200 to 1500F 2.3240 0 2.3240 2.451
Hot water, 150 to 1000F 1.1256 0 1.1256 1.187
Electric heater -0.4389 -16.8 16.3611 17.258