PSYC226 –
CHAPTER 3:
Cognitive
Psychology
VISUAL PERCEPTION Natalie Tayim
American
University of
Beirut
Spring 2020
VISUAL PERCEPTION
[Link]
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VISUAL PERCEPTION:
LECTURE OUTLINE
• The Visual System
• Visual Coding
• Form Perception
• Constancy
• The Perception of Depth
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THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Perception: seems easy and effortless
Actually depends on many separate and complex processes
But consider people with akinetopsia
Also known as cerebral akinetopsia or motion blindness
Neuropsychological disorder in which patient cannot perceive motion
in visual field
Able to see stationary objects with issue
Varying degrees of akinetopsia:
Seeing motion as a cinema reel
Inability to discriminate any motion
Currently no effective treatment or cure for akinetopsia
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THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Akinetopsia:
Mostly studied in patient L.M.
Described pouring a cup of tea/coffee difficult ”because the fluid
appeared to be frozen, like a glacier”
Did not know when to stop pouring as she could not perceive the
movement of fluid rising
Complained of having trouble following conversations as lip movements
and changing facial expressions were missed
Felt insecure when more than two people were walking around in a room:
“people were suddenly here or there but I have not seen them moving”
Movement is inferred by comparing the change in position of an object/person
Crossing the street/driving cars difficult
Started to train her hearing to estimate distance
Unable to perceive motion
Otherwise normal vision
See “nothing between” location changes
[Link] 5
THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Causes:
Brain lesions (acquired) in posterior side of visual cortex
Middle temporal cortex is the motion-processing area of the brain
Alzheimer’s disease
High doses of certain antidepressants with vision returning to normal once
dosage is reduced
Can be induced by TMS of (area V5) in visual cortex in healthy subjects
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PHOTORECEPTORS
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[Link]/watch?v=fZDAwXh
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Light cornea
lens retina
Light enters eye through cornea
Cornea and lens refract light rays to
produce sharply focused image on
retina
Iris can open or close to control
amount of light that reaches retina
Retina made up of 3 main layers:
Photoreceptors (rods and cones)
Bipolar cells 7
Ganglion cells (axons make up optic nerve)
PHOTORECEPTORS
Two other kinds of cells: horizontal cells and amacrine cells
Allow for sideways interaction
Retina contains anatomical oddity:
Photoreceptors are at very back
Bipolar cells are in between
Ganglion cells at the top
As a result, light has to pass through other layers to reach rods and cones, whose stimulation
starts the visual process
Layers not opaque
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PHOTORECEPTORS
Rods Cones
Sensitive to dim light (i.e., Cannot function in dim light
low levels of light)
Lower acuity Higher acuity
Color-blind Color-sensitive
None in the fovea Mostly in or near the fovea;
none in the periphery
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PHOTORECEPTORS
Three types of cones respond to different
wavelengths:
Short
Medium
Long
Different wavelengths correspond to different color hues
Cones far outnumber rods
Absence of rods in fovea results in its having
greatest acuity in greatest acuity of retinal region
Reading, driving – visual detail important
Distribution of photoreceptors explains
why you’re able to see very dim lights out
of the corner of your eyes
This is where rods dominate (color-blind) and
cones are absent
Rods and cones do not fire
They respond with graded potentials 10
PHOTORECEPTORS
In colorized photo (A), cones appear green and rods appear brown
(B) shows distribution of photoreceptors:
Cones most frequent in fovea
Cones drop off sharply as we move away from fovea
In contrast, no rods at all on fovea
Neither rods nor cones at retina’s blind spot
Position at which neural fibers that make up optic nerve exit the eyeball
Because position filled with these fibers, no space for rods or cones 11
PHOTORECEPTORS
Physics of light are complex but for many purposes, light can
be thought of as a wave
Shape of a wave can be described in terms of amplitude and
wavelength (i.e. distance from ‘crest’ to ‘crest’)
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PHOTORECEPTORS
Wavelengths our visual system can sense are only tiny part of
broader electromagnetic spectrum
Light with wavelength longer than 750 nanometers invisible to us,
although we feel those longer infrared waves as heat
Ultraviolet light, which has wavelength shorter than 360
nanometers, is also invisible to us
Leaves narrow band of wavelengths between 750 and 360
nanometers so-called visible spectrum
Within this spectrum, we usually see wavelengths close to:
400 nanometers as violet
700 nanometers as red
Those in between as
rest of colors in rainbow
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LATERAL INHIBITION
A series of neurons communicates information from the retina to
the cortex
In the eye
Photoreceptors
Bipolar cells
Ganglion cells (with axons that converge to form the optic nerve)
In the thalamus
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
In the cortex
V1, the primary visual projection area, or primary visual cortex, which is
located in the occipital lobe
Photoreceptors stimulate bipolar cells, which excite ganglion cells
(distributed throughout the retina but converge to form the optic nerve)
Optic nerve carries visual sensory information to the LGN, which then
transmits the information to the primary visual cortex 14
LATERAL INHIBITION
Bottom-up process
Refers to way it is built up from smallest pieces of sensory
information
Cells linking the retina and brain already perform
computations analyzing the visual input
Lateral inhibition: capacity of an excited neuron to
reduce the activity of its neighbors
Disables the spreading of action potentials from excited
neurons to neighboring neurons in the lateral
(side) direction
Application of a stimulus to center of receptive field
excites a neuron, but stimulus applied near edge inhibits it
[Link]
[Link]
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LATERAL INHIBITION
When a small light is presented in dark environment, receptors on
retina central to stimulus are activated and transduce visual
information to brain
Receptors that are peripheral to stimulus send inhibitory signals
that enhance perception of darkness in surrounding
Process has effect of creating greater dark-light contrast (such as
in Mach band illusion)
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LATERAL INHIBITION
In lateral inhibition, some neurons are stimulated to a greater
degree than others
A highly stimulated neuron releases excitatory neurotransmitters to
neurons along a particular path
At same time, highly stimulated principal neuron activates
interneurons in brain that inhibit excitation of laterally positioned
cells
Interneurons are nerve cells that facilitate communication between CNS and
motor or sensory neurons
This activity creates greater contrast among various stimuli and
results in greater focus on vivid stimulus
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LATERAL INHIBITION
Lateral inhibition occurs in cells of retina resulting in enhancement
of edges and increased contrast in visual images
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LATERAL INHIBITION
Low inhibition, fires more
High inhibition, fires less
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LATERAL INHIBITION
Retinal cells of eye receiving greater stimulation inhibit
surrounding cells to a greater degree than cells receiving less
intense stimulation
Light receptors receiving input from lighter side of edges
produces stronger visual response than receptors receiving
input from darker side
This action serves to enhance contrast at borders making
edges more pronounced
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LATERAL INHIBITION
Enhances edges or contrast in a scene
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LATERAL INHIBITION
Cell B receives strong inhibition from all its neighbors, because its
neighbors are intensely stimulated
Cell C, in contrast, receives inhibition only from one side (because
its neighbor on the other side, Cell D, is moderately stimulated)
As a result, Cells B and C start with same input, but Cell C,
receiving less inhibition, sends stronger signal to the brain,
emphasizing edge in stimulus
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LATERAL INHIBITION
Same logic applies to Cells D and E
Explains why Cell D sends weaker signal to brain
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RETINA
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VISUAL CODING
Knowledge of the visual system partly comes from single-cell
recordings
Neuron firing rates depending on the stimulus
Neuron’s firing rate, or frequency of action potentials, is recorded as
various kinds of visual stimuli are presented to the subject
Investigators can manipulate what is being shown and then record
how often the cell fires
Allows them to determine what stimulus characteristics influence the
cell’s firing
Using these methods, researchers map out the receptive field
Size and shape of the area in the visual world to which the cell responds
Each cell in the visual cortex has a receptive field
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TYPES OF RECEPTIVE FIELDS
Receptive fields of bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and cells in
LGN have a center-surround organization
Panels A through D show firing frequency for one of those
cells
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TYPES OF RECEPTIVE FIELDS
(A): Shows cell’s firing rate when no
stimulus is presented
(B): Cell’s firing rate goes up (faster) when
stimulus presented in middle of cell’s
receptive field
(C): Cell’s firing rate goes down if stimulus is
presented at edge of cell’s receptive field
Leads to slower, below-baseline firing rates
(D): If a stimulus presented both to center of
receptive field and to edge, cell’s firing rate
does not change from baseline level
A stimulus covering the entire receptive field
has the same effect as no stimulus
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TYPES OF RECEPTIVE FIELDS
Receptive fields of primary visual cortex (V1) are lines of
particular orientations
Orientation-specific visual fields
These cells are called edge detectors
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TYPES OF RECEPTIVE FIELDS
Edge detectors
Fire only when a stimulus input within the
receptive field contains a line segment at a
certain orientation
For example, one cell might:
Fire very little in response to a horizontal line
Fire only occasionally in response to a diagonal
Fire at its maximum only when vertical line is
present
In figure, circles show stimulus presented
Right side shows records of neural firing
Each vertical stroke represents firing by the cell
The left-right position reflects passage of time
edge of a particular orientation
The less the edge is like the cell’s
“preferred” edge, the less often it fires
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REVIEW
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TYPES OF RECEPTIVE FIELDS
Other receptor specializations:
• Angles
• Motions and direction
• Corners
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Area V1 is the site on occipital
lobe where axons from LGN first
reach cortex
Because of their different
receptive field, neurons in area
V1 are specialized for a
particular kind of analysis
Example of parallel processing
System in which many different steps or
kinds of analysis occur at same time
“Divide and conquer”
As opposed to serial processing
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Each box in this figure re fers to specific location within visual system
Notice vision depends on many brain sites, each performing specialized
type of analysis
Note also flow of information is complex, so no strict sequence of “this
step” of analysis followed by “that ste p”
Instead, everything happens at once, with a great deal of back-and-forth
communication among various ele ments
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Parallel processing: one process does not have to wait for the other
Posterior parietal cortex: interpreting visual information ( where)
Inferotemporal cortex: utilizing memory to identify objects and or proce ss
visual field based on color and form visual information (what)
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Advantages of parallel processing:
Speed and efficiency
Brain areas trying to discern shape of incoming stimulus don’t need to
wait until motion analysis or color analysis is complete
Instead, all analyses go forward immediately when input appears before
eyes, with no waiting time
Mutual influence among distinct processing areas
Consider fact that sometimes your interpretation of object’s motion
depends on your understanding of object’s three-dimensional shape
In other cases, your interpretation of object’s 3D shape depends on your
understanding of its motion
Since both sorts of analysis go on simultaneously, each type of analysis
can be informed by the other
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Parallel processing in the visual pathway
Parvocellular cells (P) in the LGN
Receive input from P cells in the optic nerve
Spatial analysis
Magnocellular (M) cells in the LGN
Receive input from M cells in the optic nerve
Motion detection
Depth perception
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
Information from primary visual
cortex is transmitted to
secondary visual areas
Secondary visual areas lead to
two major processing streams:
What pathway
Where pathway
Where
system
What
system What pathway: projected to
inferotemporal cortex
Where pathway: projected to
posterior parietal cortex
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PARALLEL PROCESSING
IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM
The what system
Identification of visual objects
Occipital-temporal pathway
Damage: can lead to visual agnosia
Inability to recognize objects
The where system
Determination of location of visual objects and guiding of our actions
in response
Occipital-parietal pathway
Damage: can lead to problems with reaching for seen objects
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PUTTING THE PIECES BACK TOGETHER
Parallel processing splits up the problem
With the great extent of parallel processing in the visual system,
different aspects of single object (e.g. shape, color, movement) are
analyzed in different parts of visual system
Task of reuniting different features into a coherent,
integrated perception of objects in visual scene
Binding problem
But we do not see the world as disjointed
Binding problem 39
VISUAL MAPS AND FIRING SYNCHRONY
Elements that help solve the binding problem
Spatial position
e.g. Overlap map of “what forms are where” with map of “what colors are
where” to get right colors with right forms
Neural synchrony
Visual areas processing features of same objects fire in synchronous
rhythm with each other
If neurons detecting vertical line are firing in synchrony with those
signaling movement, then these attributes are registered as belonging to
same object
If they aren’t in synchrony, then features aren’t bound together
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VISUAL MAPS AND FIRING SYNCHRONY
Attention is critical for binding visual features
When attention is overloaded or absent, people will make
errors
Conjunction errors
People with attention deficits are particularly impaired at judging how
features conjoin
Correctly detecting features present on a visual display but making errors
regarding how features bound together
Example: someone shown a blue “H” and a red “T” might report seeing a
“red H” and a “blue T”
Neuronal firing becomes synchronized for attended stimuli, but not
for unattended stimuli
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FORM PERCEPTION
Parallel Processing
Simple Visual Features
Object Recognition
Knowledge
FORM PERCEPTION
The Necker Cube:
Top cube can be perceived as if viewed from
above (in which case it is transparent version of
Cube A)
Top cube can be perceived as if viewed from
below (in which case it is a transparent version
of Cube B)
Example of perception going ‘beyond
the information given’
Bistable image: reversible or
ambiguous figure
Can be experienced in two different ways
If set of visual features results in more
than two interpretations multistable
Only one interpretation visible at a
time
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FORM PERCEPTION:
BISTABLE IMAGE
Some figures are neutral with
regard to figure/ground
organization
In this image, two
interpretations are possible
Each based on a different
figure/ground organization
Knowledge can change our
interpretation
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FORM PERCEPTION:
BISTABLE IMAGE
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FORM PERCEPTION:
BISTABLE IMAGE
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FORM PERCEPTION:
DYNAMIC BISTABLE IMAGE
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GESTALT PRINCIPLES
Many visual stimuli are ambiguous, not only reversible bistable
images
Gestalt principles help to organize the scene
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GESTALT PRINCIPLES
Your ability to interpret ambiguous scenes is governed by a
few basic principles
Gestalt principles of organization
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
Similarity: similar elements in the image are grouped together
Proximity: items close to each other are grouped
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
Good continuation: continuous elements in the image are
grouped
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
Good continuation: continuous elements in the image are
grouped
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
Symmetry: symmetrical elements are grouped
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
Common fate: elements that move together are grouped
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
Closure: Bias toward closed, complete figures
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GESTALT GROUPING RULES
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PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
What is this?
Hint: The black is the background
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PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Feature detection followed by interpretation?
Or the other way around?
Organization first feature analysis
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PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Initially, the dark shapes have no meaning
After a moment, hidden figure becomes clearly visible
Notice, therefore, that at the start the figure seems not to contain
the features needed to identify various letters
Once figure is reorganized, with white parts (not dark parts) making
up figure, features easily detected
Analysis of features depends how figure is first organized by viewer
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PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Proximity, good continuation, closure
Letter and word recognition
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PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Perception begins with the stimulus
Feature detection and perceptual organization operate in
parallel:
Information gathering (constructive feedforward process)
Interpretation (interpretive feedback process)
Brain areas that analyze basic visual features and brain areas
that analyze large-scale form are interactive, each sending
information to the other
Feature perception is guided by configuration
Analysis of configuration is guided by features
Neither step in the perceptual process “goes first”
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Perceptual constancy: we perceive constant object properties
(sizes, shapes, etc.) even though sensory information about
these attributes changes when viewing circumstances change
o Brightness constancy
o Size constancy
o Shape constancy
o Color constancy
o Lightness constancy
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Size constancy: you correctly perceive an object’s size despite
the changes in retinal-image size created by changes in
viewing distance
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Shape constancy: correct perception of an object’s shape
despite changes in viewpoint (its shape on the retina)
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Lightness constancy: perception of object reflectance does
not change despite changes in illumination
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Lightness constancy: perception of object reflectance does
not change despite changes in illumination
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Lightness constancy: perception of object reflectance does
not change despite changes in illumination
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Brightness constancy: perception of object doesn’t change
despite changes in illumination
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UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCE
Helmholtz (1909): Perception is
influenced by inferences the
perceiver makes about the
sensory input, based on
knowledge and prior experience
Implicit, rapid calculations about
the situation that produced the
sensory percept
Constancy is often influenced by
relationships between objects in
the visual field that stay the
same regardless of your viewing
distance
For example, how tall is the dog
relative to the chair?
How many floor tiles does the dog
hide from view?
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UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCE:
SIZE CONSTANCY
Relationships alone are
insufficient: distance cues
also contribute to constancy
Object size on retina changes
with distance
Helmholtz noted if you view
object from greater distance,
object casts smaller image on
retina
Achieve constancy through
unconscious inference
Essentially, multiplying image size
by distance
If object distance doubles, image size
decreases by half
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ILLUSIONS
Occur when the visual system’s assumptions fail
Under conditions that don’t conform to ordinary viewing
conditions
Unusual lighting conditions
Accidental viewpoints
Constancy mechanism operates as usual
Assumes regular lighting, viewpoint, etc…
Role of interpretation in perception becomes clear from
misinterpretations, resulting in illusions
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
Lateral inhibition produces
a contrast effect
The shadow amplifies the
effect
Unconscious inference
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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ILLUSIONS
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
We need to know distance to
be successful at size judgment
Your two eyes look out on world
from slightly different
positions, and therefore get
slightly different views
Visual system uses this
difference in views as a cue to
distance
Binocular disparity: difference
between each eye’s view
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
We can also perceive depth with one eye closed, so there
are also depth cues that depend only on what each eye sees
by itself
Muscles adjust shape of lens to produce sharply focused
image on retina
The closer an object, the more adjustment required
Perceivers are sensitive to the amount of adjustment and
use it as a cue indicating how far away object is
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
Monocular distance cues
Lens adjustment
Pictorial cues, including interposition
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
Monocular distance cues
Lens adjustment
Pictorial cues, including interposition
Linear perspective
Effect of changes in texture gradients
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
Motion is another distance and depth cue
Motion parallax
Monocular depth cue
We view objects closer to us as moving faster than objects that are further
away from us
[Link]
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
Motion is another distance and depth cue
Optic flow
Monocular depth cue
Perceived visual motion of objects as observer moves relative to them
To observer driving a car, a sign on side of the road would move from
center of vision to the side, growing as he approached
If he had 360 degree vision, sign would proceed to move quickly past his
side to his back, where it would shrink
This motion of the sign is its optic flow
This allows a person to judge how close he is to certain objects and how
quickly he is approaching them
Useful for avoiding obstacles:
If object in front of observer appears to be expanding but not moving, he is probably headed
straight for it
But, if it is expanding but moving slowly to side, he will probably pass it
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THE PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
Multiple cues provide information across different
circumstances
There is some redundancy but also flexibility
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CHAPTER 3
QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
1. Which of the following is supportive of the claim that
perception is in the “eye of the beholder” and not in the
stimulus itself?
a. When presented with ambiguous letters, the visual system uses
context to determine their identity
b. A traffic light can be identified even if partially occluded by a tree
branch
c. Whether someone remembers having previously seen an
ambiguous figure (e.g. the face-vase illustration) depends on
whether the interpretation of the figure is the same
d. All of the above are correct
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QUESTION 1: ANSWER
1. Which of the following is supportive of the claim that
perception is in the “eye of the beholder” and not in the
stimulus itself?
a. When presented with ambiguous letters, the visual system uses
context to determine their identity
b. A traffic light can be identified even if partially occluded by a tree
branch
c. Whether someone remembers having previously seen an
ambiguous figure (e.g. the face-vase illustration) depends on
whether the interpretation of the figure is the same
d. All of the above are correct
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QUESTION 2
2. We process perceptual features like color and texture in
different areas of the brain, and yet these separate features
are somehow combined to allow us to perceive coherent
objects. The challenge of understanding how this happens is
sometimes referred to as:
a. Gestalt psychology
b. The inverse optics problem
c. The binding problem
d. The two-streams problem
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QUESTION 2: ANSWER
2. We process perceptual features like color and texture in
different areas of the brain, and yet these separate features
are somehow combined to allow us to perceive coherent
objects. The challenge of understanding how this happens is
sometimes referred to as:
a. Gestalt psychology
b. The inverse optics problem
c. The binding problem
d. The two-streams problem
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QUESTION 3
3. The phenomenon of brightness constancy illustrates that:
a. Our visual system fails to appreciate the darkening effects of
shadows
b. Human perception operates on the assumption that the entire
visual field is evenly illuminated
c. We expect lighter shading to indicate that a surface is part of
foreground figure rather than the background
d. Our perception of a surface’s brightness takes into account, and
adjusts for, the level of surrounding illumination
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QUESTION 3: ANSWER
3. The phenomenon of brightness constancy illustrates that:
a. Our visual system fails to appreciate the darkening effects of
shadows
b. Human perception operates on the assumption that the entire
visual field is evenly illuminated
c. We expect lighter shading to indicate that a surface is part of
foreground figure rather than the background
d. Our perception of a surface’s brightness takes into account, and
adjusts for, the level of surrounding illumination
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QUESTION 4
4. The Mach bands illusion is often attributed to:
a. Conjunction errors
b. Lateral inhibition
c. Brightness constancy
d. Color constancy
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QUESTION 4: ANSWER
4. The Mach bands illusion is often attributed to:
a. Conjunction errors
b. Lateral inhibition
c. Brightness constancy
d. Color constancy
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QUESTION 5
5. When we see a cat's head and a cat's tail occluded by a tree
trunk, we perceive one cat rather than two separate objects.
Which Gestalt principle most closely aligns with this
experience?
a. Similarity
b. Good continuation
c. Simplicity
d. Proximity
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QUESTION 5: ANSWER
5. When we see a cat's head and a cat's tail occluded by a tree
trunk, we perceive one cat rather than two separate objects.
Which Gestalt principle most closely aligns with this
experience?
a. Similarity
b. Good continuation
c. Simplicity
d. Proximity
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QUESTION 6
6. When driving quickly, you look out the car window and see
that the distant mountains seem to be "moving" more slowly
than the street signs along the road on which you're driving.
Which perceptual cue does this describe?
a. Optic flow
b. Motion parallax
c. Perceptual constancy
d. Binocular disparity
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QUESTION 6: ANSWER
6. When driving quickly, you look out the car window and see
that the distant mountains seem to be "moving" more slowly
than the street signs along the road on which you're driving.
Which perceptual cue does this describe?
a. Optic flow
b. Motion parallax
c. Perceptual constancy
d. Binocular disparity
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QUESTION 7: ANSWER
7. If you look at a star on a dark, moonless night, the star
seems to disappear when you look right at it. That is
because the light falls on the fovea, where there are many
a. Blind spots
b. Cones
c. Rods
d. Opponent-process cells
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