GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
Special Topics
Geotechnical Engineering
◦ Uses principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials
◦ Determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials
◦ Evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assess risks posed by site conditions
◦ Design earthworks and structure foundations
◦ Monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction
Soil Formation
Soil is the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter with liquid and gas
occupying the void spaces between the soil particles.
Soil is formed when rock masses break down, undergo physical and chemical changes, and interact with
microorganism that decides the nature, color, and chemical properties of the soil.
Types of Soil
– are generally called gravel, sand, silt, or clay depending on the predominant size of particles
– sand and gravel are grouped as coarse-grained soil that feel gritty and hard
– clay and silt are fine-grained soil that feel smooth
Types of Soil
◦ Sand and gravel • Hardpan
- cohesionless aggregates of rounded - extremely dense, well-graded, and
subangular or angular fragments of more or less cohesive aggregates of mineral particles
unaltered rocks or minerals • Inorganic silt
• Sand
- fine-grained soil with little or no plasticity;
- particles with size up to 2mm smooth texture, often mistaken for clay
• Gravel - rock flour
- size from 2mm to 200mm - plastic silt
• Boulders
- fragments of more than 200mm
Types of Soil
◦ Organic silt ◦ Organic clay
- fine-grained more or less plastic soil with - presence of finely divided OM
admixture of finely divided particles of organic - very compressible when saturated
matter
• Peat
• Clay
- fibrous aggregates of micro and
- an aggregate of microscope and sub-
microscopic fragments of decayed matter
microscopic particles
Types of Rock
1. Igneous Rock
- formed by solidification of molten magma (e.g. granite, gabbro, and basalt)
- Weathering Physical involves reduction in size without any change in the original composition
- Weathering Chemical is the reduction in size and chemical alteration of the original rock forming
new materials
Types of Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
- deposit of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by weathering, compared by overburden pressure and
cementing agents like iron oxide
- Detrial sedimentary rocks are new mineral crystal inside the deposits
- Chemical S.R are formed by chemical process
- sedimentary rocks may undergo weathering to form sediments or become metamorphic rocks
Types of Rock
3. Metamorphic Rocks
- formed by metamorphism, process of changing the composition and texture of rocks by heating and
pressure
- new minerals are formed and minerals grains are shared t give a foliated texture
- under extreme heat and pressure, metamorphic rocks may melt to form magma and the cycle
repeated
Coarse-grained VS Fine-grained
Coarse-grained aggregates Fine-grained aggregates
◦ Have good load-bearing capacities and ◦ Poor load-bearing capacity and practically
drainage qualities impermeable
◦ Strength and volume change are not ◦ Strength and volume change with variations in
significantly affected by change in moisture moisture conditions and frost susceptible
condition ◦ Engineering properties are controlled by
◦ Incompressible when dense mineralogical factor
Physical Properties
◦◦ Water
content – ratio of weight of water to the weight of solid expressed as percentage
W=x1000
• Void ratio – ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids, expressed in decimal
e=
• Specific Volume (V’) – volume of soil per unit volume of solid
V’=a
• Porosity soil – ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume
n== e=
• Specific Gravity (Gs) – ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the weight of water of equal volume
Gs=
Physical Properties
◦◦ Degree
of Saturation (S) – ratio of volume of water to volume of voids
S== Se=wGs
• Unit Weight (bulk unit weight) – weight of soil per unit volume
=() w
*special case of unit weight
a) saturated unit weight (S=1)
sat=() w
b) dry unit weight
d== () w=
c) effective or bouyant unit weight – weight of a saturated soil, surrounded by water, per unit volume of soil
’= sat- w =() w
Physical Properties
◦ Relative
Density – index that quantities the degree of packing between the loosest and densest possible
state of coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments
Dr= where: emax – maximum void ratio
emin – minimum void ratio
emax= w
emin= w
• Swell Factor – ratio of the volume of excavated material to the volume of in situ material
SF=x100
◦ A
Problem 1
sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and the weight was 6N. After over-drying for 24hrs at
105, the weight reduced to 5N (container weight is 1N) if Gs is 2.7 determine a)w b) e c) d) d’ e) ’
Solution:
a) W===0.25 or 25%
b) e=
1(e)=0.25(2.7)
e= 0.675
c) =() w = ()
=19.8 kN/m^3
Problem 1
◦d) d= ==^3
e) ’= sat- w =() w\
’= ()
’= 9.956 KN /m^3
Problem 2
◦ The
void space in a sand taken near a river consist of 80% air and 20% water. The dry unit weight is and
Gs=2.7. Determine the water content
Solution:
d= S==0.2
5.7= 0.2(3.65)=w(2.7)
e=3.675=3.65 w=27.04%
Atterberg Limits
◦ Atterberg limits – is a basic measure of the critical water content of fine-grained soils. These test include
shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.
- Shrinkage Limit (SL) – moisture content at the point of transition from semi-solid to solid state
- Plastic Limit (PL) – moisture content at the point of transition from plastic state to semi-solid
- Liquid Limit (LL) – moisture content at which the transition from liquid to plastic takes place
Atterberg Limits
◦Plasticity
Index (PI) – range of water contents over which the soil deforms plastically
PI=LL-PL
Activity (A) – for soils with a particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the amount of
the clay fraction
A=
Liquidity Index (LI) – measure of soil strength using atterberg limits
LI=
Problem 1
◦ A
fine grained-soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic limit of 55%. The natural water content of the
soil in the field is 80% and clay content is 60%.
a) determine the plasticity index, the liquidity index, and activity
Solution:
a) PI=LL-PL = 300-55= 245% LI==
A==4.08
Sieve Analysis
◦ Sieve Analysis (coarse-grained soils)
- shaking a soil sample of known weight through a set of sieves of progressive finer mesh size
- the soil on each sieve is weighed and the percentage o f soil retained on each sieved is calculated
Hydrometer Analysis
◦ Hydrometer Analysis (fine-grained soils)
- involves mixing a small amount of soil into a suspension and observing how the suspension settles in
time
- particles will settle at different velocities depending on their shape, size and weight and the viscosity
of water
- a hydrometer is lowered into the suspension and the length of hydrometer projecting above the
suspension is a function of its density
Pipette Analysis
◦ Pipette Analysis
- used to measuring the size of a small particle. Sediments is stirred into suspension in a measured
volume of water in a sedimentation tube, aliquots of uniform size are withdrawn by pipette at specified
intervals and depths, over-dried , and weighed
Soil Classification
◦ Soil classification
- provides a method of identifying soils in particular group that would likely exhibit the same
characteristic
- used to specify a certain soil type that is best suitable for a given application
• Unified Soil Classification System(USCS)
- developed by Casagrande (1948) for use in airfield construction but later modified for general use
American Association of State highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
◦ U.S Bureau of Public Roads (now the Federal Highway Administration) developed AASHTO soil
classification in late 1920s for road construction
American Association of State highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Example
◦ Classify the ff soil using USCS & AASHTO Classification system
UC = 5.56
Sieve no. Diameter (mm) soil CC= 0.28
½ in. 12.7 100
4 4.75 90
10 2 80
20 0.85 60
40 0.425 55
60 0.25 48
100 0.106 10
200 0.075 6
Parameters Soil
Liquid Limit 38.5%
Plastic Limit 21%
◦ Solution:
100-6 = 94%
G - 100-90 = 10%
S- 90-6 = 84%
C+M =100-(G+S)
C+M = 100-(10+84)
C+M = 6%
----------------------------------------
100%
PI = LL-PI
= 38.5-21
PI= 17.5%
ANS. SP-SM ,A-2-6 (poorly graded sand with silt)
US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
◦ USDA developed for agricultural purposes
Texture – means visual appearance of the surface of a material
Example
◦ Classify the soil using USDA Classification system
Particle Diameter (mm) Soil
4.760 100
2 100
0.840 85.1
0.250 72
0.147 62.3
0.048 50.2
0.028 40.3
0.010 22.6
0.002 16.1
◦ Solution:
%sand = 100-50.2 = 49.8%
%silt = 50.2-16.1 = 34.1%
%clay = 16.1 %
-------------------------------------------
100%
ANS. LOAM
Permeability and Seepage
◦ Permeability
- state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it to allow liquids or gases to pass
through it
◦ Seepage - slow escape of a liquid or gas through porous material or small holes
◦ Hydraulic head
- Bernoulli’s Principle, total head H, at a point in water under motion can be given by the sum of the
pressure head, velocity, and elevation head
H=
In soils,
H=
Permeability and Seepage
◦◦ Darcy’s
Law
- volumetric flow rate, Q is proportional to head loss H
- Q is proportional to the cross-sectional area of flow A
v = ki
◦ Seepage Velocity – velocity through the void spaces
obtained by dividing average velocity by the soil’s
porosity
Vs= =
Where;
i = hydraulic gradient
K=coefficient of permeability
Permeability and Seepage
◦ Constant-Head Test
- Used to determine k for coarse grained soils
- Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical
soil sample under a constant head, H
- Outflow, Q is collected and measured at a time
duration, t
k=
Permeability and Seepage
◦ Falling Head Test
- Used to determine k for fine-grained soils
- Water flows through a standpipe
- Head of water, h which changes with time, is
recorded at different times
k = ln(
Permeability and Seepage
◦ Factors affecting permeability:
1. Grain size
2. Properties of pore water pressure
3. Temperature
4. Void ratio
5. Stratification of soil
6. Entrapped air and organic impurities
7. Adsorbed water
8. Degree of saturation
9. Shape of particles
10. Structure of soil mass
Example
◦ A constant head permeability test is performed on a sample of granular soil. Length of soil sample is
15cm and cross-sectional area is 10 sq.cm. it a 24 cu.m of water passes through the sample in a 3-min
period and the constant head is 30cm, determine the ff:
◦ 1. find the coefficient of permeability soil
◦ 2. find the discharge velocity
◦ 3. compute seepage velocity if void ratio is 0.64
◦Given:
Lsoil= 15cm H= 30cm
Asoil= 10cm^2
Vcollected= 24cm^3
Tcollected= 3min=180s
Solution:
1. K=== 6.67x10^-3 cm/s
2. Q=VA=Q==V(10cm^2)
V= 0.013 cm/s
3. Vs=
Vs==0.033cm/s
Compaction
◦ Soil compaction
- water is added to the soil during compaction so that soil particles slip over each other
- dry unit weight after compaction increases as the moisture content increases but at a certain w, any
increases tends to reduce the dry unit weight
Compaction
◦ Factors affecting soil compaction
1. Soil type
- grain size distribution, grain shape, solid’s specific gravity, amount and type of clay materials
2. Compaction Effort
- compaction energy per unit volume
Compaction
◦ Proctor Compaction Test
- Developed to deliver a standard amount of
mechanical energy to determined the maximum
dry unit weight of a soil
Compaction
◦ Field Compaction
- Use of mechanical equipment to compact soils
Compaction
◦ Compaction Quality Control ◦ Sand Cone Method
1. Sand Cone Method
2. Rubber Balloon Method
3. Nuclear Method
Compaction
◦ Rubber Balloon Method ◦ Nuclear Method
Example
◦ An
embankment for a highway 30m wide and 1.5m is compacted thickness is to be constructed from a sandy
soil trucked from a borrow pit. The water content of the sandy soil in the pit is 15% and its void ratio is 0.69.
The specifications requires the embankment to be compacted to a dry unit weight of 18KN/m^3. For a 1km
embankment length, determine the ff:
◦ 1. The weight of sandy soil from the borrow pit required to construct the embankment.
◦ 2. The number of 10.0m^3 truckloads of sandy soil required
◦ 3. The weight of water per truckload of sandy soil
◦ 4. The degree of saturation of the sandy soil in situ
Given:
W=30m e=0.69
L=1km
t=1.5m
W=15%
◦ Solution:
1. 4. Se=wGs
S(0.69)=0.15(2.7)
= S= 59%
Vrequired= 30(1.5)(1000)=4500m^3
=
Wsoil= 810,000KN
2.
no. of truck =
3.
w== 23.51 kN/truckload
Vertical Stress in Soil
◦• Total
and effective stress
- Consider an element of saturated soil subjected to a normal stress on a horizontal boundary
- is called total stress and for equilibrium, the stresses on the soil must be equal and opposite to
Principle Effective Stress
◦ First
recognized by Terzaghi during his ◦ For unsaturated soils, the effective stress is
research on soil consolidation
; Where :
◦ most important principle in soil mechanics
uo - pore air pressure
◦ Means that deformation of soils is a function of
uw – pore water pressure
effective stress not total stresses
X – factor of degree of saturation
X=0 for dry
X=1 for saturated
Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
◦ Point Load
- Boussinesq presented a solution for the
distribution of stresses for a point load applied on
the soil surface
Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
◦ Line Load
Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
Lateral Earth Pressure Increase
◦ Linear Load near earth- retaining structure
Lateral Force Increase
Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
◦ Uniform Circular Load
- increases of vertical and radial stresses
under the center of a circular area of radius, r
Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
◦ Uniform Rectangular Load
- increases the stresses below the corner of a
rectangular area of width, B and length L
Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
◦Where:
Equation for increase in vertical stress , can be expressed as,
Where Iz, is the influence factor for vertical stress and is computed by the expression
Where m= B/z and n= L/z
Example 1
◦ Consider a point load P=5KN . Calculate the vertical stress increase at z=0, 10m and 20m. Given x=3m
and y=4m
◦Solution:
r= = =5
@z=0m
= 0kPa
@z=10m
= 0.0137kPa
@z=20m
=5.129^-3kPa
Example 2
◦ Determine the increase of stress at point A due to two line loads on the surface
◦Solution:
===12.119kPa
==3.028kPa
= 12.119+3.028
=15.147kPa
Example 3
◦ A storage tower is supported on a ring foundation, as shown. the total vertical load is 4MN. Compute the
vertical stress increase of a depth 8m under the center of the ring point O.
◦Solution:
qs===79.58kPa
= 79.58 =31.05kPa
=79.58 =14.25kPa
= 31.05-14.25
=16.80kPa
Soil Exploration
◦ Site Investigation ◦ Soil Sampling
- determine the nature of soil and its - to obtain soils satisfactory size with
stratification minimum disturbances for observations and
- recover soil samples for visual laboratory tests
identification and appropriate laboratory testing *disturbed sample
*undisturbed sample
Soil Exploration
◦ Site Investigation method ◦ Soil Sampling
1. Background Literature Search - Disturbed Sample
2. Field Reconnaissance 1. Split Spoon Sampler
3. Subsurface Exploration and Sampling - Undisturbed Sample
1. Thin-walled Shelby Tube
2. Piston Sampler
Soil Exploration
◦ Soil Exploration Report 7. Groundwater table as observed from boreholes
1. Scope and limitations of investigation 8. Details of foundation recommendations and
2. 2. general description of the proposed alternatives
structure for which the exploration has been 9. Any anticipated construction problems
conducted
3. Geologic conditions of the site
4. Drainage facilities at the site
5. Details of boring
6. Description of subsoil conditions as
determined from the soil and rock samples
collected
Example of soil investigation report
from the Municipality of Calamba that
we used as a reference from our thesis
project
Geosynthetics in Geotechnical and Geo-
environmental Engineering
◦ Geosynthetics can be used with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical engineering-related materials as an
integral part of a human-made project, structure, or system.
◦ Geo-environmental engineering is concerned to environmental impacts of contaminants within soils, and
includes such aspects as understanding the migration, interaction and fate or contaminants, the protection
of uncontaminated regoins, the remediation or clean up of contaminated sites.
Software related to Geotechnical
Engineering
◦ Plaxis 3D is a computer program that performs finite element analysis within the realm of geotechnical
engineering, including deformation, stability and water flow. The input procedures enable the enhanced
output facilities provide a detailed presentation of computational results.
Plaxis 3D
Plaxis 3D
