Lec-2

Trait Approach
 Trait Approach
 The theories that were developed were called “great
 man” theories because they focused on identifying the innate
qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political,
and military leader
 Catherine the Great, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Mohatma Gandhi,
Indira Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln,Joan of Arc, and Napoleon
Bonaparte
 In a major review, Stogdill (1948) suggested that no consistent set
of traits differentiated leaders from nonleaders across a variety of
situations.
 An individual with leadership traits who was a leader in one
situation might not be a leader in another situation.
 Rather than being a quality that individuals possess, leadership
was conceptualized as a relationship between people in a social
situation.
10 Characteristics- by Stogdill
1. drive for responsibility and task completion;
2. vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals;
3. risk taking and originality in problem solving;
4. drive to exercise initiative in social situations;
5. self-confidence and sense of personal identity;
6. willingness to accept consequences of decision and action;
7. readiness to absorb interpersonal stress;
8. willingness to tolerate frustration and delay;
9. ability to influence other people’s behavior; and
10. capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand.
Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics

SOURCES: Adapted from “The Bases of Social Power,” by J. R. P. French, Jr., and B. Raven, 1962, in D. Cartwright (Ed.), Group
Dynamics: Research and Theory (pp. 259–269), New York: Harper and Row; Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader (2004).
 Intelligence
 Intelligence or intellectual ability is positively related to leadership.
Based on their analysis of a series of recent studies on intelligence
and various indices of leadership, Zaccaro et al. (2004) found
support for the finding that leaders tend to have higher intelligence
than nonleaders
 Research also indicates that a leader’s intellectual ability should not
differ too much from that of the subordinates.
 If the leader’s IQ is very different from that of the followers, it can
have a counterproductive impact on leadership.
 They may have difficulty communicating with followers because they
are preoccupied or because their ideas are too advanced for their
followers to accept.
 An example of a leader for whom intelligence was a key trait was
Steve Jobs,founder and CEO of Apple who died in 2011. Jobs once
said, “I have this really incredible product inside me and I have to
get it out” (Sculley, 201)
 Self-Confidence
 Self-confidence is another trait that helps one to be a leader.
Self-confidence is the ability to be certain about one’s
competencies and skills.
 It includes a sense of self-esteem and self-assurance and the
belief that one can make a difference. Leadership involves
influencing others, and self-confidence allows the leader to feel
assured that his or her attempts to influence others are
appropriate and right.
 When Steve Jobs described the devices he wanted to create,
many people said they weren’t possible. But Jobs never
doubted his products would change the world, and despite
resistance, he did things the way he thought best. “Jobs was
one of those CEOs who ran the company like he wanted to. He
believed he knew more about it than anyone else, and he
probably did,” said a colleague (Stone, 2011).
Determination
 Determination is the
desire to get the job
done and includes
characteristics such as
initiative, persistence,
dominance, and drive.
 The determination of
[Link] Pfau, led to
eradicating of Leprosy in
Pakistan
 Integrity
 Integrity is another of the important leadership traits. Integrity
is the quality of honesty and trustworthiness.
 Leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because
they can be trusted to do what they say they are going to do.
 They are loyal, dependable, and not deceptive. Basically,
integrity makes a leader believable and worthy of our trust.
 Scandals in the corporate world (e.g., Enron and WorldCom)
have led people to become skeptical of leaders who are not
highly ethical.

[Link]
 Sociability
 Sociability is a leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant social
relationships. Leaders who show sociability are friendly,
outgoing, courteous, tactful, and diplomatic.
 They are sensitive to others’ needs and show concern for
their well-being. Social leaders have good interpersonal skills
and create cooperative relationships with their followers.
 Five-Factor Personality Model and
Leadership

Neuroticism is one of the Big Five higher-order personality traits in the study
of psychology. Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than
average to be moody and to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear,
anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness.
Emotional Intelligence
 1960s “ Seeman (1960) described leadership as “Acts by persons
which influence other persons in a shared direction” (p. 53)
 1970s: The group focus gave way to the organizational behavior
approach, where leadership became viewed as “initiating and
maintaining groups or organizations to accomplish group or
organizational goals” (Rost, 1991, p. 59)
 1980s:
 Do as the leader wishes
 Influence. Probably the most often used word in leadership
definitions of the 1980s, influence was examined from every angle.
noncoercive influence.
 Traits. Leadership is based on a trait orientation.
 Transformation. Burns (1978) is credited for initiating a movement
defining leadership as a transformational process, stating that
leadership occurs “when one or more persons engage with others in
such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher
levels of motivation and morality” (p. 83).
21st Century emerging leadership Approaches
 Authentic leadership, in which the authenticity of leaders
and their leadership is emphasized;
 Spiritual leadership, which focuses on leadership that
utilizes values and sense of calling and membership to
motivate followers;
 Servant leadership, which puts the leader in the role of
servant, who utilizes “caring principles” to focus on followers’
needs to help these followers become more autonomous,
knowledgeable, and like servants themselves; and
 Adaptive leadership, in which leaders encourage followers
to adapt by confronting and solving problems, challenges,
and changes
 Components of Leadership:
(a) Leadership is a process,
(b) leadership involves influence,
(c) leadership occurs in groups, and
(d) leadership involves common goals.
Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal
Leadership as a process: means that it is not a trait rather a transactional
event that occurs between the leader and the followers
Leadership involves influence. It is concerned with how the leader affects
followers
Leadership occurs in groups. Groups are the context in which leadership
takes place
Leadership includes attention to common goals. Leaders direct their
energies toward individuals who are trying to achieve something together.
Trait Versus Process Leadership
 The trait perspective suggests that certain individuals
have special innate or inborn characteristics or qualities that
make them leaders, and that it is these qualities that
differentiate them from non leaders
 Physical factors (e.g., height), Personality features (e.g.,
extraversion), and other characteristics (e.g., intelligence
and fluency;
 The process viewpoint suggests that leadership is a
phenomenon that resides in the context of the interactions
between leaders and followers and makes leadership
available to everyone.
 As a process, leadership can be observed in leader
behaviors ( Jago, 1982), and can be learned
 Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership
 Assigned Leadership is based on occupying a position in an
organization. Team leaders, plant managers, department
heads, directors, and administrators are all examples of
assigned leadership.
 When others perceive an individual as the most influential
member of a group or an organization, regardless of the
individual’s title, the person is exhibiting emergent
leadership.
 This type of leadership is not assigned by position; rather, it
emerges over a period through communication.
 Some of the positive communication behaviors that account
for successful leader emergence include being verbally
involved, being informed, seeking others’ opinions, initiating
new ideas, and being firm but not rigid (Fisher, 1974).
 Six Bases of Power

SOURCE: Adapted from “The Bases of Social Power,” by J. R. French Jr. and B. Raven, 1962, in D. Cartwright (Ed.), Group Dynamics: Research and
Theory (pp. 259–269), New York: Harper & Row; and “Social Influence and Power,” by B. H. Raven, 1965, in I. D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (Eds.), Current
Studies in Social Psychology (pp. 371–382), New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
 Leadership and Power
 Power is the capacity or potential to influence.
 Power is often thought of as synonymous with leadership
 Kellerman argues there has been a shift in leadership power
during the last 40 years. Power used to be the domain of
leaders, but that is diminishing and shifting to followers.
Changes in culture have meant followers demand more from
leaders, and leaders have responded.
 Access to technology has empowered followers, given them
access to huge amounts of information, and made leaders
more transparent.
 The result is a decline in respect of leaders and leaders’
legitimate power. In effect, followers have used information
power to level the playing field.
 Bases of Power
 Position power is the power a person derives from a
particular office or rank in a formal organizational system.
 Personal power is the influence capacity a leader derives
from being seen by followers as likable and
knowledgeable. When leaders act in ways that are
important to followers, it gives leaders power.
 Leadership and Coercion
 Coercion involves the use of force to effect change. To
coerce means to influence others to do something against
their will and may include manipulating penalties and
rewards in their work environment.
 Coercion often involves the use of threats, punishment, and
negative reward schedules.
 Adolf Hitler in Germany, the Taliban leaders in Afghanistan,
Jim Jones in Guyana, and North Korea’s Supreme Leader
Kim Jong-il.
 Leaders who use coercion are interested in their own goals
and seldom are interested in the wants and needs of
followers. Using coercion runs counter to working with
followers to achieve a common goal.
 Leadership and Management
 In general, many of the functions of management are activities
that are consistent with the definition of leadership.
 The overriding function of management is to provide order and
consistency to organizations, whereas the primary function of
leadership is to produce change and movement.
 Management is about seeking order and stability; leadership is
about seeking adaptive and constructive change.
 Although there are clear differences between management and
leadership, the two constructs overlap.
 When managers are involved in influencing a group to meet its
goals, they are involved in leadership.
 When leaders are involved in planning, organizing, staffing, and
controlling, they are involved in management.
 Both processes involve influencing a group of individuals toward
goal attainment.
An Oracle White Paper June 2012
 Currently companies are not well prepared to fill
vacancies in their leadership roles
 Diminishing Trust in leadership
 75 percent of the survey respondents identified building
leadership talent as their current and most significant
capabilities challenge
7 Steps for Effective Leadership Development
1. Determine the Best Leadership Style for Your
Organization
2. Identify current and potential leaders within the
company
3. Identify leadership gaps
4. Develop succession plans for critical roles
5. Develop career planning goals for potential leaders

6. Develop a skills roadmap for future leaders

7. Develop retention programs for current and future
leaders
 1. Determine the Best Leadership Style for Your
Organization
 Identifying the leadership style for an organization by using this
approach includes identification of the type of work, the
complexity of the organization, and the qualifications of the
followers.
 One of the main reasons for the high failure rate of new CEOs—
more than half never make it past the four-year mark—is poor
organizational fit.
 Get to know them better. Psychological and behavioral assessments
that are typically offered via assessment center exercises have been
statistically linked to current and future success in leadership roles.
 Understand the culture better. Ask your board, employees, vendors,
consultants, and others with connections to the organization for insight
into what makes an effective leader in the company.
 2. Identify Current and Potential Leaders
Within the Company
 Competence Models
 Competence models can be used to identify leadership
potential during performance reviews and career counseling
sessions. One model, developed by SHL, Great Eight
leadership competencies.
 Creating and conceptualizing
 Analyzing and interpreting
 Leading and deciding
 Interacting and presenting
 Adapting and coping
 Supporting and cooperating
 Enterprising and performing
 Organizing and executing
 3. Identify Leadership Gaps
 The identification of leadership gaps is an assessment of
both the individuals and the readiness of the organization.
 Determine current and future leadership requirements
 Compare those requirements with the current leadership
team
 Identify current leaders who may be at risk of leaving
 Identify succession plans for those at risk of leaving or
planning to leave
 Look at the leadership development pipeline
 Identify gaps in skills and the time required to fill those
gaps
EXAMPLE OF LEADERSHIP GAP
ANALYSIS
4. Develop Succession Plans for Critical Roles
 Creating a succession plan for critical roles should not be
confined to executive roles.
 As part of the leadership program, companies should evaluate
critical leadership roles throughout the organization.
 Coaching and Mentoring
 A 2008 American Medical Association (AMA) study, “Coaching: A
Global Study of Successful Practices,” surveyed more than 1,000
business leaders around the world and found that nearly 60 percent
of North American companies use coaching for high-potential
employees frequently or a great deal and that about 42 percent use
coaching of executives to the same extent. These percentages were
even higher in the international sample of the same AMA study.
 Technology to Support Succession Planning
 Create backfill strategies that use data captured in the
recruiting and performance review processes, coupled
with individual career plans
 Add multiple candidates to a succession short list and view
all the best options—without necessarily adding them to
the plan
 Display multiple talent profiles—from C-level executives to
individual contributors—side by side to quickly identify the
best fit
 Track candidate readiness based on skills, competencies,
and performance; promote top candidates based on
relative ranking and composite feedback scores
5. Develop Career Planning Goals for Potential
Leaders
 45 percent have visibility into internal job opportunities
 42 percent can see their next step up the career ladder
 57 percent have career communications with their employer
 40 percent have access to online career tools
 If companies do not provide employees with career planning
and advancement opportunities, their competitors will.
 Self-service career planning will help motivate and retain
talent, by empowering employees to view a career plan and
generate their own within the company.
6. Develop a Skills Roadmap for Future Leaders
 Case Study: Coca-Cola—Leadership Development
Delivers the Goods
 Stevens J. Sainte-Rose, group HR director at Coca-Cola, says, “The
uniqueness of Coca-Cola is in engaging consumers with the brand, so
marketing talent is key. Without the right people, we can’t deliver the
winning formula.”
 Coca-Cola therefore embarked on a pioneering bespoke program to not
only identify its rising marketing stars but also to plan their development,
ensuring that the company had a strong pipeline of highly creative and
innovative thinkers who could be the marketing leaders of tomorrow filling
senior vacancies around the world.
 In developing a bespoke program, Coca-Cola chose to partner with
international assessment consultancy SHL, which worked with Coca-
Cola’s talent professionals and senior marketing leaders to create a two-
day development program for high-potential marketers aspiring to
become senior marketing leaders.
 Looking to its strongest-performing marketers, Coca-Cola developed a set of competencies
to define the “ideal” skills and behaviors of a senior marketing leader. This was undertaken
with the global backdrop in mind, to ensure that competencies were calibrated
internationally, allowing for a level playing field that did not disadvantage any participants.
 Eight handpicked marketers were then chosen to undertake a two-day pilot in Europe.
Although the pilot ran in Paris, Coca-Cola participants came from all over the world. The
aim was for existing marketing leaders of the business to see and develop potential from
as many geographies as possible, making selection of the best as equitable and as
representative as possible.
 The program was also designed to give participants an opportunity to bond and establish a
global alumni network of supportive colleagues that would continue beyond the event.
Extremely senior Coca-Cola marketers made up an observer panel alongside highly
experienced occupational psychologists from SHL, proving Coca-Cola’s commitment and
dedication to the program.
 So successful has the development program been that Coca-Cola and SHL now run it
every three to six months in locations around the world in an effort to ensure that Coca-
Cola will never have to look outside its own talent pool to fill key strategic marketing
positions vital to maintaining the iconic Coca-Cola brand image.
 The company’s mission is “to refresh the world ... in body, mind and spirit,” and Coca-Cola
accepts that to do this, its vision needs to include “being a great place to work where
people are inspired to be the best they can.”
 7. Develop Retention Programs for
Current and Future Leaders
 Monetary as well as
nonmonetary rewards can be
used to improve the retention of
any employee, but particular
attention needs to be paid to
high performers and future
leaders.
 A Taleo Research survey polled
working adults over the age of
18 to test some monetary versus
nonmonetary reward systems.
 Figure 10, salary and bonuses
ranked as the top rewards for
doing a good job, but promotions
and work/life balance were also
important
 Case Study: The Cost Associated with Healthcare Executive
Turnover
 According to a 2006 report from the American College of Health Care
Executives, the median tenure of a hospital CEO is only 43 months, or about
three and a half years.
 The direct and indirect costs of executive churn can be staggering. Consider
a CEO who makes US$200,000 a year. The direct costs of losing that person
include everything from severance pay to recruitment fees and expenses, not
to mention the next CEO’s probable increased salary. According to one
estimate, the final tally can be as high as two to three times a CEO’s salary.
Using the hypothetical CEO, that adds up to a median of US$500,000.
 The costs do not end there. In many cases, other members of the senior
leadership team—VPs, the COO, the CFO, and so forth—follow the CEO out
the door. The “2005 Study on Executive Turnover in Healthcare,” from the
University of Oklahoma, estimated that many on the existing leadership team
will leave within a year of a new CEO’s arrival.
 If a leadership team has eight members and four leave within the first year,
the estimated direct cost of this turnover is US$1 million (4 positions × 2.5
salary cost × US$100,000 leadership salary = US$1 million). Combine this
with the direct cost of the CEO turnover, and the total bill is approximately
US$1.5 million
 LEADERSHIP IN THE
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
By: Kathleen E. Allen, Ph.D., Juana
Bordas, Ph.D., Gil Hickman, Ph.D.,
Larraine R. Matusak, PhD., Georgia
Sorenson, Ph.D., and Kathryn Whitmire
[Link]
[Link]
Thank You