GEM 2108: Structural Geology
Topic 1: Introduction
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Learning outcomes
By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. Define the subject and scope of Structural Geology
2. Define rock deformation
3. Define the six basic types of structures
4. Discuss the importance of Structural Geology
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What is Structural Geology?
1. The branch of geology that studies the changes in a rock that are
produced when the rock body is acted on by geological forces.
2. More formally, structural geology studies the deformation of rocks
that result from crustal movement.
3. More elegantly, structural geology is the study of the architecture of
the Earth’s crust, insofar as it has resulted from deformation.
QUESTION: What are the common ideas in these three definitions?
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These “changes in a rock”, this “architecture”, are due to deformation.
So what exactly is deformation?
Deformation is the event which produces a change in the original
shape, volume, location and orientation of a body of rock. For a rock
to be described as deformed, any one of the four factors must
change.
Examples: a planar layer may become bent, or elongated minerals in
a rock may change their orientation.
Basic movements in deformation
Change in shape: distortion
Change of volume: dilation
Change in position/location: translation
Change in orientation: rotation
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Let’s fine-tune our definitions
Structural Geology is concerned both with:
1. the PROCESS of deformation (how, when, where and why), and
2. the RESULT of deformation (the structures that are formed).
But NOT ALL types of rock deformation are of concern. So which
types are the focus of the Structural Geologist?
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ONLY those types of rock deformation caused by “crustal
movement”, “tectonic forces”, or “geological forces”.
This type of deformation is called secondary (as opposed to primary)
because it occurs AFTER the rocks have been formed.
So, what do we rule out?
1. Mass movement/wasting (because it is due to gravitational forces)
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2. Soft sediment deformation or syndepositional deformation (due to
gravitational and buoyancy forces)
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What geological forces?
• Plate tectonics (at margins and intraplate)
• Magmatism
• Hot plume activity
• Sedimentation
• Salt diapirism
• Hydraulic fracturing
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The six fundamental structures
1. Faults and shear zones
2. Folds
3. Joints
4. Foliation
5. Lineation
6. Cleavage
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The six fundamental structures
FAULTS – are fractures in the crust along which movement of rocks
occurs parallel to the plane of the surface of the fracture.
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The six fundamental structures
FOLDS – are systematically curved layers and surfaces in rocks
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The six fundamental structures
Different scales of folding
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The six fundamental structures
JOINTS – are fractures or cracks in rocks along which there
has been movement perpendicular to the plane of the
fracture.
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The six fundamental structures
FOLIATIONS – are very closely-spaced parallel alignments of
planar features in a rock, such as micaceous minerals,
crystals, microfaults and flattened pebbles.
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The six fundamental structures
LINEATIONS – are very closely-spaced parallel alignments of
linear features in a rock, such as elongated minerals, bundles
of tiny folds and striations.
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The six fundamental structures
CLEAVAGE – closely-spaced subparallel surfaces that impart a
splitting property to highly-deformed rocks. Most cleavage
reflects discontinuities along which rock has partially been
removed by stress-induced dissolution.
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The six fundamental structures
CLEAVAGE –
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Importance of Structural geology
1. Exploration for ores, petroleum, natural gas and groundwater
2. Interpretation of geologic history of the earth (tectonic
development)
3. Mining of deposits by underground methods (construction of
mines and tracing of veins)
4. Assessing geological hazards, such as earthquakes, land and
rock slides
5. construction of engineering infrastructure (bridges, tunnels,
dams, etc)
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Importance of structural geology
Exploration for ores, petroleum, natural gas and groundwater
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Importance of structural geology
Exploration for ores, petroleum, natural gas and groundwater
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Importance of structural geology
Interpretation of geologic history of the earth (tectonic
development
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Importance of structural geology
Interpretation of geologic history of the earth (tectonic
development
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Importance of structural geology
Mining of deposits by underground methods (construction of mines and
tracing of veins)
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Importance of structural geology
Assessing geological hazards, such as earthquakes, land and
rock slides
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Importance of structural geology
Assessing geological hazards, such as earthquakes, land and
rock slides
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Importance of structural geology
Construction of engineering infrastructure (bridges, tunnels,
dams, mines etc)
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Importance of structural geology
Construction of engineering infrastructure (bridges, tunnels,
dams, mines etc)
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Importance of structural geology
Construction of engineering infrastructure (bridges, tunnels,
dams, mines etc)
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Importance of structural geology
Construction of engineering infrastructure (bridges, tunnels,
dams, mines etc)
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What approach do we use to study structures?
DETAILED STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Descriptive analysis
Kinematic analysis
Dynamic analysis
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Detailed structural analysis
Descriptive analysis
… is concerned with recognizing and describing structures and
measuring their components.
Kinematic analysis
… focuses on interpreting the deformational movements (the
combination of translations, rotations, dilations and distortions)
responsible for the development of the structures.
Dynamic analysis
… interprets deformational movements in terms of forces and stresses
responsible for the formation of the structures. The major aim is to
describe the relative magnitudes and absolute orientations of the
stresses that were responsible for the deformation.
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Classification of geological structures
1. By strain significance
2. By mesoscopic cohesiveness during deformation
3. By geological significance
4. By timing of formation
5. By process of formation
6. By distribution of deformation
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Ductile
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Brittle
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TIMING OF FORMATION: the time the structure develops relative to another
geological event affecting the area, such as tectonism or magmatism. To describe
this relative timing, we use prefixes such as:
Pre- = forming before.
Post - = forming after.
Syn- = forming at the same time.
Co- = forming at the same time.
Late- = forming at the end of the event.
Early- = forming at the start of the event.
Peak- = forming during the most intense or most active period of the event.
Examples: pre-tectonic faults, syn-volcanic folds, late-metamorphic
fractures, post-formational structures.
These prefixes can be used generally, as in: comagmatic mineralization.
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Folding through slips/slides
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Faults penetrative at what scale of observation?
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Learning outcomes
By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. Define the subject and scope of Structural Geology
2. Define rock deformation
3. Define the six basic types of structures
4. Discuss the importance of Structural Geology
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