UNIT- 6

SAMPLING

Presented by
Ms.Samjhana Neupane
Msc.Nursing 1st year
SNSR
TERMINOLOGY
1) Population :
• A population is a complete set of persons or objects that possess some
common characteristics of interest to the researcher to which the results of a
research are to be generalized.
• For eg: a researcher needs to study the problems faced by postgraduate
nurses of indias; in this the population will be all the postgraduate nurse who
are indian citizens.
• The population for a study is composed of two groups: the target
population and the accessible population.
Target Population:
• Is composed of entire group of people or objects that meet the
designated criteria to which the researcher wishes to generalize
the findings of a study.
• For eg: a researcher is interested in identifying the complication
of diabetes mellitus type II among people who have migrated to
Ludhiana.
• In this instance, the target population are all migrants at Ludhiana
suffering with diabetes mellitus type II.
Accessible Population:
• Is the aggregate of cases that confirm to the designated criteria
and are also accessible as subjects for a study.
• For eg: A researcher is conducting a study on the registered nurse
working in Dayanand Medical College and Hospital, Ludhiana.
• In this case, the population for this study is all the RNs working in
DMCH, but some of them may be on leave and may not be
accessible for research study.
• Therefore , accessible population for this study will be RNs who
meet the designated criteria and who are also available for the
research study.
2) SAMPLE:

• A representative unit of a target population, which is to be worked upon by

researchers during their study.

• In other words, sample consists of a subset of units which comprise the

population selected by investigators or researchers to participate in their
research project.
3)SAMPLING:

• The process of selecting a representative segment of the population under

study.

• For eg: A grain buyer takes handful of grains to get an idea about entire bag
of garins; or for instance, a chef tests afew morsels of cooked dish to know
the correctness of taste and flavours; similarly a pathaologist take only a
few millilitres of blood to measure the haemoglobin levels of an individual.
4)SAMPLING FRAME:

• It is a list of all the elements or subjects in the population from which the
sample drawn.

• Sampling frame could be prepared by the researcher or an existing frame

may be used.

• For example: a researcher may prepare a list of all the households of a

locality which have pregnant women or may use a register of pregnant
women for antenatal care available with local aganwadi worker.
 Precision
Purposes Improved Quick
Economica and
of quality of study
l accuracy
sampling data results
of data
1)Economical:

• In most cases, it is not possible an economical for researchers to study an

entire population.

• With the help of sampling the researcher can save a lot of time, money and
resources to study a phenomenon.

• Therefore, sampling provide an economical option for the researcher to

generate empirical evidences.
2)Improves quality data:

• It is a proven fact that when a person handle less amount of work or fewer
number of people, then it is easier to ensure the quality of the outcome.

• Similarly, in research when a researcher is handling the information from

only a part of the population under study, it is easier to maintain the quality
of the research work, which would not be possible in case the entire
population was involved.
3)Quick study results:

• Studying an entire population itself will take a lot of time, and generating
research results of alarge mass will be almost impossible as most research
studies have time limits.

• But with a sample, it is possible to generate study results faster, which is

one of the important objectives of every researcher.
4)Precision and accuracy of data:

• Conducting a study on an entire population provides researchers with

voluminous data, and maintaining precison of that data becomes a
cumbersome task, while carrying a study on apart of the population( sample)
helps the researcher to generate more precise data, whwere formulation of the
interpretations of the data becomes musch easier.

• It is always easy to establish better rapport with a sample and thus collect
more accurate data.

• Thus, a sample helps to generate precise and accurate data in aresearch study.
 No
Characteristi Free from substitutio Appropriat
Representati
cs of Good
ves bias and n and e sample
sample; errors incomplete size
ness
1)Representative:

• A representative sample is one that the key characteristics of which are

closely related to those of the population.

• Representativeness of the sample makes it possible to generalize the

findings for the population.
2)Free from bias and errors:
• A good sample is one which is free from deliberate selection of the subjects
for study.
• Sample should be free from simple random sampling errors or sampling
bias.

3)No substitution and incompleteness:

• A sample is said to be good if once a subject is selected for the study, it is
neither replaced nor is it incomplete in any aspect of researchers’ interest.
4)Appropriate sample size:

• Generally, it is believed that in quantitative studies the larger the sample

size, better is the probability of the goodness of the sample.

• However, in qualitative studies this notion is not considered importanr.

Advantages of sampling

• Economical: Reduce the cost compare to entire population.

• Increased speed: Collection of data, analysis and Interpretation of data etc

take less time than the population.

• Accuracy: Due to limited area of coverage, completeness and accuracy is

possible.

• Rapport: Better rapport is established with the respondents, which helps in

validity and reliability of the results
Disadvantages of sampling

1)Biasedness: Chances of biased selection leading to incorrect conclusion

2)Selection of true representative sample: Sometimes it is difficult to select

the right representative sample

3)Need for specialized knowledge: The researcher needs knowledge,

training and experience in sampling technique, statistical analysis and
calculation of probable error

4)Impossibility of sampling: Sometimes population is too small or too

heterogeneous to select a representative sample.
• FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING PROCESS:

1)Nature of researcher

• Inexperienced investigators

• Lack of interest

• Lack of honesty

• Intensive workload

• Inadequate supervision
2)Nature of the sample

• Inappropriate sampling technique

• Sample size

• Defective sampling frame

3) Circumstances:

• Lack of time

• Large geographic area

• Lack of cooperation

• Natural calamities
Problems of sampling:

• Sampling errors

• Lack of sample representativeness

• Difficulty in estimation of sample size

• Lack of knowledge about the sampling process

• Lack of resources

• Lack of cooperation

• Lack of existing appropriate sampling frames for larger population

• Callous approach of the researcher towards sampling process.

 TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Sampling methods
Probability Non probability
sampling
Purposive sampling
Simple random sampling
Convenience sampling
Stratified random Consecutive sampling
sampling
Quota sampling
Systematic sampling
Snowball sampling
Cluster/ multistage
sampling Volunteer sampling
Sequential sampling Genealogy sampling
PROBABILITY SAMPLE

• A method of sampling that uses of random selection so that all units/ cases
in the population have an equal probability of being chosen.

• The purpose of probability sampling is to get a sample that represents the

population from which it was drawn.

• In this sampling technique, everyone has a chance of being selected or

sampled before the sampling begins. 
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

1. Simple random sample

2. Stratified random sample
3. Systematic random sample
4. Cluster sample Probability Sampling 
5. Sequential sampling
 1) SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• In this sampling, every subset of a specified size n from the population has
an equal chance of being selected.

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available.

• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability.

• Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.

• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which

units are to be selected.
• And sample can be drawn from sampling frame by using following

methods:

• The lottery method.

• The use of table of random numbers

• The use of computer

Advantage

• Easy method to use.

• No need of prior information of population.
• Equal and independent chance of selection to every element.

Disadvantages

• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.

• Expensive and time consuming.
 2) STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• This method is used for heterogeneous population.
• Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the
researcher divides the entire population into different homogeneous
subgroups or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from different strata.
• The strata are divided according to selected traits of the population, such as
age, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, education etc.
• For eg: if a researcher wants to study biophysical profiles of nursing
students in a college of nursing, which contains 100 students from
Himachal Pradesh , 200 students from Haryana, and 300 students from
Punjab. The researcher chose different sampling fractions and then
randomly selects a sample of 50 subjects from each stratum.
Advantages
• It ensures representation of all groups in a population.
• Researcher also employ stratified random sampling when they want to
observe existing relationships between two or more subgroups. Therefore
comparision is possible between subgroups with this sampling.
Disadvantages:
• Large population must be available from which to select subjects.
• There is always a possibility of faulty classification and hence increase
variability.
3) Systematic random sampling:
• This sampling techniques can be likened to an arithmetic progression,
wherein the difference between two consecutive numbers is the same.
• It involves the selection of every kth case from a list of groups such as
every 10th person on a patient list or every 100th person from a phone
directory.
• K=N/n
• Where N= no. of subjects in target population
• n=size of sample.
• For eg: a researcher wants to choose about 100 subjects from atotal target
population of 500 people. Therefore 500/100=5. therefore , every 5th person
will be selected.
Advantages:
Convienent and simple to carry.
Less cumbersome, time consuming and cheap than simple random sampling.

Disadvantages:
Sometimes this may result in biased sample.
 4) CLUSTER SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• A sampling technique that involves dividing the population into groups

called clusters, randomly selecting a certain number of clusters, and then
sampling every person (or thing) within each cluster. 

• This technique is useful when the population of interest is spread out over a
large area or gaining access to individuals proves too difficult. 
• For example, suppose you wanted a sample of 1st graders from around the
U.S.  How could you get a list who these 1st graders are?  With thousands
of schools located across 50 states, you probably could not. 

• However, it would be easy to obtain a list of all schools in the U.S.  

• Once you have this list of schools (clusters), you randomly sample the
desired number of schools before collecting data on all the first graders in
each of the chosen schools.
Types of cluster samples:

1) One stage cluster sample:

• Recall the example given above; one stage cluster sample occurs when the
researcher includes all the high school students from all the randomly selected
clusters as sample.

2) Two stage cluster sample:

• In this, initially the researcher lists all the clusters appearing in the population.

• After this, the clusters are selected or often by systematic sampling, the elements or
units in the selected clusters of the first stage are then sampled in the second stage.
3) Multistage cluster sample:

• In multistage cluster sample, the sampling is done at more than the two
levels by initially identifying clusters as population at different levels and
selecting them using simple random sampling technique and finally
selecting units (elements) using simple random sampling or systematic
sampling.
Advantages:

• Cheap , quick and easy for a large population.

• Population parameters of population can be estimated for sample size.

Disadvantages :

• Possibility of high sampling error.

• Chances of least representative sample due to over represented or under

represented cluster.
5. Sequential sampling:

• This method of sample selection is slightly different from other methods.

• Hence the sample size is not fixes.

• The investigator initially selects small sample and tries out to make inferences; if
not able to draw results, he or she then adds more subjects until clear cut inferences
can be drawn.

• For example, a researcher is studying association between smoking and lung

cancer. Initially researcher takes a smallest sample and tries to draw inference. If
unable to draw any inference he or she continues to draw the sample until
meaningful inferences are drawn.
Advantages

• Facilitates to conduct a study on best possible smallest representative

sample.

• Helping in ultimately finding the inferences of the study.

Disadvantages

• With this sampling technique, it is not possible to study a phenomenon

which needs to be studied at one point of time.

• Requires epeated entries into the field to collect the sample.

2) Non-probability sample:

• Non –probability sampling is a technique wherein the samples are gathered

in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected in the sample.

• In other words, in this type of sampling every subject does not have equal
chance to be selected because elements are chosen by choice not by chance
through non random sampling methods.
Features of Non probability sampling:

• Does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being
selected.

• Most of the researcher are bounded by time, money and workforce so it is

difficult to randomly sample the entire population.

• Subjects in a non probability sample are usually selected on the basis of

their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgement of the researcher.
• Non probability sample may or may not represent the entire population
accurately.
Uses of Non Probability Sampling:

• When random sampling is impossible like when the population is almost

limitless, it can also be used.

• This type of sampling can be utilized when it is needed to show that a

particular trait is existent in the population.

• When researcher has got limited budget, time and workforce, it is also use.
 TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

i. Convenience samples (ease of access) sample is selected from elements

of a population that are easily accessible
ii. Purposive sample (Judgmental Sampling) You chose who you think
should be in the study
iii. Quota Sampling
iv. Snowball Sampling
v. Consecutive sampling
vi. Volunteer sampling
vii. Genealogy sampling
1) Convenience Sampling : The researcher selects cases based on their availability for the
study. In other words, the researcher surveys people who can be easily reached or who are
readily available to participate in the study.

Merits:

• Easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.

• Helps in saving time, money and resources.

Demerits:

• The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias, and that the
sample is not representative of the entire population.

• Findings generated from these samples cannot be generalized on the population.

2) Purposive Sampling :

• Purposive sampling is more commonly known as ‘ judgmental’ or

‘authoritative sampling’.

• In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a
specific purpose in mind.

• In purposive sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are fit for
research compared to other individuals.
• For example, a researcher wants to study the lived experiences of post
disaster depression among people living in earthquake affected areas of
Gujarat.

• In this case, a purposive sampling technique is used to select the subjects

who were the victims of the earthquake disaster and have suffered post
disaster depression living in earthquake affected areas of Gujarat.

• For this study, the researcher selected only those people who fufil the
criteria as well as particular subjects that are the typical and representative
part of population as per the knowledge of the researcher.
Merits :

• Simple to draw sample and useful in explorative studies.

• Saves resources, requires less fieldwork.

Demerits:

• Requires considerable knowledge about the population under study.

• It is not always reliable sample, as conscious biases may exist.

3) Quota Sampling :

• Quota sampling is a non probability sampling technique wherein the researcher

ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects, depending on which
tarit is considered as the basis of the quota.

• The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race, religion, and
socioeconomic status.

• for examples, if the basis of the quota is college level and the researcher needs
equal representation, with sample size 100, he or she must select 25 first year ,
another 25 second year students, 25 third year, and 25 fourth year students.
Steps and uses of Quota Sampling:

• Dividing the population into exclusive subgroups is the initial step in non
probability quota sampling.

• Thereafter, the researcher should recognize the proportions of these

subgroups in the population; this same proportion will be employed in the
sampling process.

• Finally, the researcher choses subjects from various subgroups when taking
into account the proportions noted in the previous step.
• The sample is representative of the entire population and is ensured by the
final step. It also permits the researcher to study characteristics and traits
that are significant for each subgroups.

• The main reason for choosing quota samples is that they permit the
researchers to sample a subgroup that is of very large interest to the study.
Advantages:

• Economically cheap, as there is no need to approach all the candidates.

• Suitable for studies where the fieldwork has to be carried out, like studies
related to market and public opinion pools.

Disadvantages :

• Can be biases.
Snowball Sampling :

• This non-probability sampling technique relies on previously identified

group members to identify other members of the population, hence the
sample grows like a "snowball".

• This is used when a population listing is unavailable and cannot be

compiled by researchers, such as illegal drug users or illegal aliens.
• For examples, a researcher wants to conduct a study on the prevalence of
HIV/ AIDS among commercial sex workers.

• In this situation, snowball sampling is the best choice for such studies to
select a sample.

• Therefore, researcher use this sampling method if the sample for studies
that are very rare or limited to very small subgroups of the population.

• This type of sampling technique is also called chain referral sampling.

Types of Snowball Sampling:

Linear Snowball Sampling:

• In this, each selected sample is asked to provide reference of only one similar
subject; where a linear chain is created by the completion of desired sample

Exponential non discriminative snowball sampling:

• In this, each sample member is asked to provide reference of a least two similar
subjects, because of which the size of the sample grows exponentially and a
large sample size can be achieved.
Exponential discriminative snowball sampling:

• In this, initially one sample is selected and asked for two references of
similar subjects, out of which at least one subjects must be active to provide
further references and another could be non active in providing references.

• Similarly, each active reference subject is further asked for two references
for similar subjects; out of them on should be active for further references.
Merits :

• When utilizing other sampling methods, the chain referral process permits
the researcher to reach population that are difficult to sample.

• The process is simple, cheap, and cost efficient.

• This sampling technique requires lesser workforce and little planning as

compared to other methods.
Demerits :

• The researcher has less control over the sampling method. The subjects that
the researcher can get depend chiefly on the previous subjects that were
observed.
• Genealogy Sampling:

• The is a non probability sampling technique in which all the members of

entire related families are selected rather than selecting the different
households in the village or area.

• The genealies are selected begins with identifying a first participant, who is
convinced to participate in the study and then further he/ she is asked to
refer to close relatives of his family, who even may be living in other areas
of village or areas.
Merits:

• This sampling technique is useful in drawing a representative sample from

traditional rural communities, which are socio-culturally and economically
homogenous.

• Saves the time and efforts in locating the study subjects because participants
are identified through reference from previous participants.
Demerits:

• This sampling technique encounters problem of systematic errors or bias.

• It lacks the diversity of sample participant characteristics because subjects

are selected from a family or re;ated families. Thus, it has limited
usefulness.
• SUMMARY
 REFERENCES

BOOKS
 
• Sharma k. S. (2018) “Textbook of Nursing Research and statistics.” 3rd
edition. Elsevier Publication. Page No. 250- 287
• Rentala. S. (2019). “Basics in Nursing Research and Biostatistics.” 1st
edition. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. Page No. 245-252
• Patel. P.S (.2016). “Essential Textbook of Nursing Research and Statistics.”
1st edition Samikshya Publication, Kathmandu. Nepal. Page No. 200-205