MEM560 Manufacturing Processes

Topic 3

Metal Forming
&
Shaping Processes

Compiled by Norliana Mohd Abbas

 Content
Overview of Metal Forming and
Shaping Processes

Process Design 1
Consideration Rolling
7 2

Sheet-metal 6 3 Forging
Drawing & Pressing

5 4

Wire and Bar Drawing Extrusion

 1 Overview of Metal Forming &
Shaping Processes
Definition of metal forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal workpieces

• The tool, usually called a die, Material properties in metal forming

applies stresses that exceed the High
yield strength of the metal ductilit
Low
y
yield
• The metal takes a shape strength
determined by the geometry of
the die Strain
rate
Friction

* These properties are affected by temperature:

Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
 1
Basic Types of Deformation Processes
1. Bulk deformation

Wire & bar Rolling

drawing 4 1

3 2
Extrusion Forging

2. Sheet metalworking
Mi
ing pr scel
oc la
r aw e s ne
d se ou
eep s s
D
1
Material Behavior in Metal Forming

 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because

material is plastically deformed
1
Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline
Metals
 When a polycrystalline metal with
uniform equiaxed grains is subjected to
plastic deformation at room
temperature (cold working), the grains
become deformed and elongated.

 During plastic deformation, the grain

boundaries remain intact and mass
contribution is maintained.

 Deformed metal has high strength as

the entanglement of dislocations with
grain boundaries
1
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain
Growth
 Plastic deformation can be reversed by
heating the metal to a specific temperature
range for a period of time called annealing.
 Three events take place during the heating

process:

1. Recovery
 During recovery, which occurs at high

temperature range below recrystallization

temperature of the metal, the stresses in the
highly deformed regions are relieved.

 Subgrain boundaries will begin to formed,

called polygonization.
1
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain
Growth (2)
2. Recrystallization
 It is the process in which new equiaxed

and strain-free grains are formed.

 The recrystallization temperature is

defined as the temperature at which

complete recrystallization occurs within
one hour.
 Recrystallisation decrease dislocations

lower the strength and raise the ductility

of the metal.
 Fig 1.14 shows the effects of recovery,

recrystallization and grain growth on

mechanical properties and on the shape
and size of grains.
1
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain
Growth (3)
 The effects on recrystallization of temperature,
time and plastic deformation by cold working
are as follow:

- For a constant amount of deformation by cold

working, the time required for recrystallization
to occur decreases with increasing temperature.
- The more the prior cold work, the lower the
temperature required for recrystallization.
- The greater the degree of deformation, the
smaller the grain size becomes during
recrystallization.
- Anisotropy due to preferred orientation usually
persists after recrystallization .

3. Grain Growth
 When increase temperature of metal

continuously, the grains will grow and their

size may eventually exceed the original grain
size and affects mechanical properties.
 1 Temperature in Metal Forming
Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
 Deformation at temperatures above  In practice, hot working usually
the recrystallization temperature performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Recrystallization temperature =  Metal continues to soften as
about one‑half of melting point on temperature increases above
absolute scale Hot 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot
Working working above this level
*Tm:melting temperature
Cold Warm
Working Working

 Performed at room temperature or  Performed at temperatures above

slightly above room temperature but below
 Many cold forming processes are recrystallization temperature
important mass production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually
required
 These operations are near net shape or
net shape processes
1
Hot
Working

Advantages
 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
 No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed
by cold forming

Disadvantages
 Lower dimensional accuracy
 Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the
workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
 Shorter tool life
1

Warm
Working

Advantages
 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

Disadvantages
 Workpiece must be heated
1

Cold
Working

Advantages
 Better accuracy, closer tolerances
 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 Grainflow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product
 No heating of work required

Disadvantages
 Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
 Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can
be done
 In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked
1
Lubrication in Metal Forming
 Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work interface in
many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of
friction

 Benefits:
a) Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
b) Better surface finish
c) Removes heat from the tooling
1 Selecting Manufacturing Process
7

 Proper selection on suitable manufacturing process are based on

a) volume of production
b) quality & properties of product expected e.g. surface finish, accuracy,
etc.
c) technical viability (practicality of the process)
d) economy (cost & time)
2
Rolling Process
2
Overview
 Definition & Terminology
 Various Rolling Processes
 Flat Rolling Process
 Shape Rolling
 Rolling Mills
 Thread Rolling
 Ring
 Defects in rolled plates and sheets
 Consideration in Design Specifications
 2
Definition
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or
changing the cross-section of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.

Rotating rolls perform two

main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap
between them by friction
between workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the
work to reduce its cross
section
The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).
Terminology
 Bloom usually has a square cross-section, at least 150 mm
on the side

 Slab usually is rectangular in cross-section.

 Billets usually are square (with a cross-sectional area

smaller than blooms) and later are rolled into various
shapes, such as round rods and bars, using shaped rolls.

 Plates generally have a thickness of more than 6 mm and

are used for structural applications, such as ship hulls,
boilers, bridges, machinery, and nuclear vessels.
Various flat-rolling and
shape-rolling processes

Rolled Products: Made of Steel

2
Types of Rolling
 Based on workpiece geometry :
 Flatrolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I‑beam

 Based on work temperature :

 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount
of deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
2
Flat Rolling Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process.

(b) Friction forces acting on strip surfaces.
(c) Roll force, F, and the torque, T, acting on the rolls. The width of the strip, w,
usually increases during rolling.

Changes in the grain structure of

cast or of large-grain wrought
metals during hot rolling.

Hot rolling is an effective way to

reduce grain size in metals for
improved strength and ductility.
2
Flat Rolling Process
 A metal strip of thickness enters the roll gap and is reduced to thickness
by a pair of rotating rolls.

 Each roll being powered individually by electric motors.

 The initial rolling steps (breaking down) of the material typically is done
by hot rolling.

 Hot rolling converts the cast structure to a wrought structure with finer
grains and enhanced ductility, both of which result from the breaking up
of brittle grain boundaries and the closing up of internal defects
(especially porosity).

 Cast structures of ingots or continuous castings are converted to a

wrought structure by hot working.
2
Flat Rolling Process
 In the hot rolling of blooms, billets, and slabs, the surface of the
material usually is conditioned (prepared for a subsequent operation)
prior to rolling them.

 Cold rolling is carried out at room temperature and, compared with

hot rolling, produces sheets and strips with a much better surface
finish (because of lack of scale), dimensional tolerances, and
mechanical properties (because of strain hardening).

 Pack rolling is a flat-rolling operation in which two or more layers of

metal are rolled together, thus improving productivity.

 To improve flatness, the rolled strip typically goes through a series of

leveling rolls.

(a) Leveling rolls to flatten rolled sheets (b) Roller levelling to straighten drawn bars
2
Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured
cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)

 Accomplished by passing work

through rolls that have the
reverse of desired shape

 Products include:
 Construction shapes such as
I‑beams, L‑beams, and
U‑channels
 Rails for railroad tracks
 Round and square bars and
rods
2
Rolling Mills
 Equipment is massive and expensive
 Rolling mill configurations:

a) Two-high rolling mills: b) Three-high rolling mills: work c) Four-high rolling mills:
two opposing rolls passes through rolls in both backing rolls support
directions smaller work rolls

d) Cluster mill – multiple e) Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high

backing rolls on smaller rolls mills
2
Thread Rolling

Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.

Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them
between two dies

 Important for mass producing bolts and screws & performed by cold working in
thread rolling machines

 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

 Higher production rates
 Better material utilization
 Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to work hardening

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2
Ring Rolling

Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and
(2) completion of process.

Deformation process in which a thick‑walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a

thin‑walled ring of larger diameter

 As thick‑walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates, causing diameter of

ring to be enlarged. Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for
smaller rings

 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings
for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery

 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through cold

working

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2
Defects in rolled plates and sheets

(a) wavy edges;

(b) zipper cracks in the

center of the strip;

(c) edge cracks;

(d) alligatoring.
2
Considerations on Design Specifications
7 Residual stresses
 Because of non-uniform deformation of the material in the roll gap,
residual stresses can develop in rolled plates and sheets, especially
during cold rolling.

 Small-diameter rolls or small thickness reductions-per-pass tend to

deform the metal plastically more at its surfaces than in the bulk.

(a) shows residual stresses developed in rolling with small-diameter rolls or at small
reductions in thickness per pass.
(b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-diameter rolls or at high reductions-
per-pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress patterns.
2
Considerations on Design Specifications
7
Dimensional Tolerances
 Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets usually range from 0.1 to
0.35 mm, depending on the thickness.

 Tolerances are much greater for hot-rolled plates because of thermal

effects.

 Flatness tolerances are usually within 15 mm/m for cold rolling and 55
mm/m for hot rolling.

Surface Roughness
 Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish, hence products made of
cold-rolled sheets may not require additional finishing operations,
depending on the application.

 Note also that hot rolling and sand casting produce the same range of
surface roughness.
3 Forging
3
Overview

 Introduction
 Classification of Forging Operations
 Types of Forging Dies
a) Open-die forging
b) Impression-die forging
c) Closed-die forging
 Forging Defects
 Process Design Considerations
 3 Introduction
 Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies

 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural

components, jet engine turbine parts

 Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form of large parts
that are subsequently machined to final shape and size
 Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive
forces applied through various dies and tooling.

 Forging may be carried out at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated

temperatures (warm or hot forging), depending on the temperature.

 Forgings generally are subjected to additional finishing operations, such as

heat treating to modify properties and machining to obtain accurate final
dimensions and surface finish.

 These finishing operations can be minimized by precision forging, which is an

important example of net-shape or near-net shape forming processes.
3
Classification of Forging Operations
 Cold vs. hot forging:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase ductility
of work metal
 Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that results from strain
hardening

 Impact vs. press forging:

 Forge hammer - applies an impact load
 Forge press - applies gradual pressure
3 General Characteristics of Forging Process
3 Types of Forging Dies

1 Open‑die forging

Impression‑die
Work is compressed
between two flat dies,
2 forging
allowing metal to flow
laterally with minimum
constraint
Die contains cavity or 3 Flashless forging
impression that is
imparted to workpart

Metal flow is constrained

so that flash is created Workpart is completely
constrained in die

No excess flash is created

3 Open-Die Forging

Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal conditions in an open‑die forging

operation:
(1) start of process with workpiece at its original length and diameter,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final size

 The simplest forging operation with compression of workpart between two

flat dies
 Similar to compression test when workpart has cylindrical cross section and
is compressed along its axis
 Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of work
 Common names include upsetting or upset forging
3 Open-Die Forging
1. With No Friction
 If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous
deformation occurs

 Radial flow is uniform throughout workpart height

2. With Friction
 Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work,
resulting in barreling effect

 In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat

transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and increases
its resistance to deformation
 3 Impression-Die Forging
 In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity
while being forged between two shaped dies.

 This process usually is carried out at elevated temperatures for enhanced

ductility of the metals and to lower the forces.

Sequence in impression‑die forging:

(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) partial compression,
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

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3 Impression-Die Forging
 Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part shape

 Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap between
die plates

 Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each step

 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and

desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
 Final steps bring the part to final geometry

 Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an important function during

compression:
 As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap,
constraining material to fill die cavity
 In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against die
plates

 Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled operator under

adverse conditions
3 Advantages & Limitation of Impression-
die forging

 Advantages :
 Higher production rates
 Less waste of metal
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal

 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed
3 Closed-die/flashless Forging

Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
 Often classified as a precision forging process

 Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does not allow
for flash

 Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within very close
tolerance

 Process control more demanding than impression‑die forging

 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical

 3 Forging Defects
 In addition to surface cracking during forging, other defects also can develop
as a result of the material flow pattern in the die.

 Internal defects also may develop from

(a) nonuniform deformation of the material in the die cavity,
(b) temperature gradients throughout the workpiece during forging,
(c) microstructural changes caused by phase transformations.

Examples of defects in forged parts

(a) Laps formed by web buckling
during forging; web thickness
should be increased to avoid this
problem.

(b) Internal defects caused by an

oversized billet. Die cavities are
filled prematurely, and the
material at the center flows past
the filled regions as the dies
close.
3 Design Considerations
The various factors influence the design of a forging are:
7 (i) Parting line – mating surface of the two halves of the die
(ii) Draft – adequate draft is available to facilitate the removing of
forging from the dies
(iii) Ribs and bosses – not to high and narrow
(iv) Web – relatively thick and uniform
(v) Wall thickness, machining allowance and surface finish
In addition:
(i) Shape and size,
(ii) Grade and composition of metal,
(iii) Quantity required,
(iv) Subsequent processing and heat-treatment, and
(v) End use

The use of open-die forgings should be considered if only small quantities

(around 25) are to the produced.

The use of close die is recommended for:

(i) small repeat quantities if the shapes require considerable machining,
(ii) for almost any size and shape of pieces if required in large quantity
(above 100) (by drop forging).
4 Extrusion Process
4 Overview

 Introduction
 Direct Extrusion
 Indirect Extrusion
 Advantages
 Design considerations
4 Introduction
 Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross‑sectional shape

 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube

 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross

sections

 Two basic types:

◦ Direct extrusion
◦ Indirect extrusion
4
Direct Extrusion
 Also called forward extrusion

 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that

cannot be forced through die opening

 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extrudate by
cutting it just beyond the die exit

 Starting billet cross section usually round. Final shape of extrudate is

determined by die opening

(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi‑hollow cross

sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi‑hollow cross sections.
4
Indirect Extrusion
 Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by

 Lower rigidity of hollow ram
 Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die

Indirect extrusion to produce

(a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.
4 Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die
 Simplest cross section shape is circular die orifice

 Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure

 As cross section becomes more complex, higher pressure and greater force
are required

 Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure can be assessed by means the

die shape factor Kx

A complex extruded cross section for a heat sink

(photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)
4 Hot Extrusion
 For metals and alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room temperature (or in
order to reduce the forces required), extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures

 As in all other hot-working operations, hot extrusion has special requirements because of
the high operating temperatures.

 Because the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film unless it is heated in an inert
atmosphere furnace.

 In order to avoid the formation of oxide films on the hot extruded product, the dummy
block placed ahead of the ram is made a little smaller in diameter than the container.

 As a result, a thin shell (skull) consisting mainly of the outer oxidized layer of the billet is
left in the container.

 The skull is removed later from the chamber.

4 Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its recrystallization temperature
 Reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting more size
reductions and more complex shapes

 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts

 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold extrusion

Cold extrusion has the following advantages over hot extrusion:

1. Improved mechanical properties resulting from work-hardening, provided that the

heat generated by plastic deformation and friction does not recrystallize the extruded
metal.

2. Good control of dimensional tolerances, reducing the need for subsequent machining
or finishing operations.

3. Improved surface finish, due partly to lack of an oxide film and provided that
lubrication is effective.

4. Production rates and costs that are competitive with those of other methods of
producing the same part, such as machining. Some machines are capable of producing
more than 2000 parts per hour.
4 Advantages of Extrusion
 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion
◦ Limitation: part cross section must be uniform throughout length

 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm extrusion

 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion

 In some operations, little or no waste of material

4 Extrusion Defects
Surface cracking
 If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too high, surface temperatures
can rise significantly, which may cause surface cracking and tearing (fir-tree
cracking or speed cracking).

 Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land.

Pipe
 The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw surface oxides
and impurities toward the center of the billet—much like a funnel. This
defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing.

Internal Cracking
 The center of the extruded product can develop cracks, called center
cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking.
4 Extrusion Defects

 (a) shows the Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the
products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected and later cause
failure of the part in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of
wire, and of tubes.

 (b) shows schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency
toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the
plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die angle or by increasing the
reduction in cross section (or both).
4 Design Considerations: Extrusion Die Features
7

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;

(b) Effect of die angle on ram force.

 Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction at die‑billet
interface
 Higher friction results in larger ram force

 Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during reduction

 Turbulence increases ram force required

 Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature, and lubrication

4
Metal flow in Extrusion
 The metal flow pattern in extrusion, as in other forming processes, is
7
important because of its influence on the quality and the mechanical
properties of the extruded product.

 The flow pattern is determined by the basic principle that energy is

minimized in any such process.

(a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction or indirect extrusion

(b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber interfaces
(c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with cooling of the outer regions of the billet
chamber. Can be seen in metals where strength increases rapidly with
decreasing temperature, leading to pipe defects
5 Wire & Bar drawing
5 Content

 Introduction
 Drawing process
 Drawing equipment
 Drawing practice
 Bar drawing
 Wire drawing
 Lubrication
 Die material
 Die design
 Defects
5 Introduction
 In drawing, the cross-section of a long rod or wire typically is reduced or
changed by pulling (hence the term drawing) it through a die called a
draw die.
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is
pushed through in extrusion)
 Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a
significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die opening
 The major processing variables in drawing are similar to those in extrusion
— that is, reduction in cross-sectional area, die angle, friction along the
die-workpiece interfaces, and drawing speed.

The die angle, the reduction in cross-sectional area per pass, the speed of drawing, the
temperature, and the lubrication all affect the drawing force, F.
5 Drawing Process
 Figure shows the examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without
an internal mandrel.
5 Drawing Process
 In drawing, reductions in the cross-sectional area per pass range up to
about 45%.

 Usually, the smaller the initial cross-section, the smaller the reduction
per pass.

 A light reduction (sizing pass) also may be taken on rods to improve

surface finish and dimensional accuracy.

 Drawing speeds depend on the material and on the reduction in cross-

sectional area.
5 Drawing Process

 variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the

same initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).

 Wedge-shaped dies are used for the drawing of flat strips and are used
only in specific applications.

 However, the principle of this process is the fundamental deformation

mechanism in ironing, used extensively in making aluminum beverage
cans.
5 Drawing Equipment
 A draw bench contains a single die, and its design is similar to that of a long,
horizontal tension-testing machine.

 Figure shows the cold drawing of an extruded channel on a draw bench to

reduce its cross-section. Individual lengths of straight rods or of cross-
sections are drawn by this method.
5 Drawing Equipment
 Very long rods and wire (many kilometers) and wire of smaller cross-
sections, usually less than 13 mm , are drawn by a rotating drum (bull
block or capstan.

 The tension in this setup provides the force required for drawing the wire,
usually through multiple dies (tandem drawing).

Figure shows an illustration of multistage wire drawing typically used to

produce copper wire for electrical wiring.
5 Drawing Practice
 Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross sections

 Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and
shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other
processes

 Because the product does not have sufficient time to dissipate the
heat generated, temperatures can rise substantially at high drawing
speeds and can have detrimental effects on product quality.

 Drawn copper and brass wires are designated by their temper (such
as 1/4 hard, 1/2 hard, etc.) because of work hardening.
5 Bar Drawing
 Accomplished as a single‑draft operation ‑ the stock is pulled through
one die opening

 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder

 Requires a batch type operation

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars.

 5 Wire Drawing
 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies (typically 4
to 12) separated by accumulating drums

 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through
upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is
achieved by the series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work hardening

Continuous drawing of wire

5 Lubrication
 Proper lubrication is essential in drawing in order to improve die life
and product surface finish and to reduce drawing forces and
temperature.

 Lubrication is critical, particularly in tube drawing, because of the

difficulty of maintaining a sufficiently thick lubricant film at the
mandrel–tube interface.
 5 Lubrication
The following are the basic methods of lubrication used in wire drawing:

1. Wet drawing in which the dies and the rod are immersed completely in the
lubricant

2. Dry drawing in which the surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a
lubricant by passing it through a box filled with the lubricant (stuffing box)

3. Metal coating in which the rod or wire is coated with a soft metal, such as
copper or tin, that acts as a solid lubricant

4. Ultrasonic vibration of the dies and mandrels, where vibrations reduce

forces, improve surface finish and die life, and allow larger reductions per
pass without failure.
5 Die Materials
Die materials for drawing typically are tool steels and carbides.

Because of their lack of tensile strength and toughness, carbide and

diamond dies typically are used as inserts or nibs, which are supported
in a steel casing.

Figure shows the tungsten-carbide die insert in a steel casing.

Diamond dies used in drawing thin wire are encased in a similar manner.
5 Die Design
7  A set of dies is required for profile drawing, which involves various
stages of deformation to produce the final profile.

 Figure shows the terminology of a typical die used for drawing a

round rod or wire.

 Entry region - funnels lubricant into the

die to prevent scoring of work and die
 Approach - cone‑shaped region where
drawing occurs
 Bearing surface - determines final stock
size
 Back relief - exit zone - provided with a
back relief angle (half‑angle) of about 30
 Die materials: tool steels or cemented
carbides
5 Defects
 Typical defects in a drawn rod or wire are similar to those observed
in extrusion, especially center cracking.

 Another major type of defect in drawing is seams, which are

longitudinal scratches or folds in the material.

 Because they undergo non-uniform deformation during drawing, cold-

drawn products usually have residual stresses.

 Rods and tubes that are not sufficiently straight (or are supplied as
coil) can be straightened by passing them through an arrangement of
rolls placed at different axes—a process similar to roller leveling.
6
Sheet Metal Drawing
& Pressing
 6 Introduction
 The term press working or press forming is used commonly in industry
to describe general sheet-forming operations, because they typically
are performed on presses using a set of dies.

 Low-carbon steel is the most commonly used sheet metal because of its
low cost and generally good strength and formability characteristics.

 Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin sheets of

metal

 Operations usually performed as cold working

 Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm (1/4 in)
 Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
6 Introduction
 Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial products
such as

 Automobiles and trucks

 Airplanes
 Railway cars and locomotives
 Farm and construction equipment
 Small and large appliances
 Office furniture
 Computers and office equipment
6 Introduction
General characteristics of sheet-metal forming processes.
6 Drawing
 Sheet metal forming to make cup‑shaped, box‑shaped, or other
complex‑curved, hollow‑shaped parts
 Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and then punch
pushes metal into opening
 Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells, automobile body
panels
 Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it from wire and bar
drawing)
6 Drawing

 Figure (a) shows the schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process

on a circular sheet-metal blank.
 The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the
punch.
 Figure (b) shows the process variables in deep drawing.
 Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated in the figure
are independent variables.
 6

metal-forming processes
involved in
manufacturing a two-
piece aluminum
beverage can.
6 Drawing Shapes other than Cylindrical
Cups

 Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),

 Stepped cups
 Cones
 Cups with spherical rather than flat bases
 Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body
panels)

 Each of these shapes presents its own unique

technical problems in drawing
6 Deep drawing design considerations
7 The following are key elements affecting metal flow, and each of them
should be considered when designing, building, or troubleshooting deep
drawing stamping dies:
1.Material type
2.Material thickness
3.N and R values
4.Blank size and shape
5.Part geometry
6.Press speed (ram speed)
7.Draw radii
8.Draw ratio
9.Die surface finish
10.Die temperature
11.Lubricant
12.Draw bead height and shape
13.Binder pressure
14.Binder deflection
15.Standoff height
6 Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes

1. Cutting
 Shearing to separate large sheets
 Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
 Punching to make holes in sheet metal

2. Bending
 Straining sheet around a straight axis

3. Drawing
 Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
 6 Principle of Sheet Metal Cutting

Shearing of sheet metal between two

cutting edges:
(1) just before the punch contacts work;
(2) punch begins to push into work,
causing plastic deformation;

(3) punch compresses and penetrates

into work causing a smooth cut
surface;
(4) fracture is initiated at the opposing
cutting edges which separates the
sheet.
6 Principle of Sheet Metal Cutting
7

(a) shows effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation
zone in shearing.
(b) shows micro-hardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020
hot-rolled steel in the sheared region.

As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die
rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range
between 2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet.
6 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
7  Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting edge

 Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock thickness

 If too small, fracture lines pass each other, causing double
burnishing and larger force
 If too large, metal is pinched between cutting edges and excessive
burr results

 Recommended clearance is calculated by:

c = at
where c = clearance; a = allowance; and t = stock thickness

 Allowance a is determined according to type of metal

6 Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges

 Typically used to cut large sheets

Shearing operation: (a) side view of the shearing operation; (b) front view
of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
6 Blanking & Punching
(a) Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank)
from surrounding stock

(b) Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a

slug
6 Punch Force

 The force required to punch is basically the product of

the shear strength of the sheet metal and the total area
being sheared along the periphery.

 Friction between the punch and the work piece can,

however, increase punch force significantly.

 Furthermore, in addition to the punch force, a force is

required to strip the punch from the sheet during its
return stroke.
 6 Punch and Die Sizes
 For a round blank of diameter Db:
 Blanking punch diameter = Db ‑ 2c
 Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance

 For a round hole of diameter Dh:

 Hole punch diameter = Dh
 Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance

Die size determines blank size Db;

punch size determines hole size Dh.;
c = clearance
 6 Compound Dies
 Several operations on the same
sheet may be performed in one
stroke at one station with a
compound die.

 Such combined operations

usually are limited to relatively
simple shapes, because
(a) the process is somewhat
slow and
(b) the dies rapidly become
much more expensive to
produce than those for Components of a punch and die for a blanking
individual shearing operations, operation
especially for complex dies.
 6 Progressive Dies

 Parts requiring multiple operations to

produce can be made at high
production rates in progressive dies.

 The sheet metal is fed through as a coil

strip, and a different operation (such as
punching, blanking, and notching) is
performed at the same station of the
machine with each stroke of a series of
punches.
(a) Progressive die;
(b) Associated strip development
 6 Compound & progressive Dies

(a) before and (b) after

blanking a common
washer in a compound die.
Note the separate
movements of the die (for
blanking) and the punch
(for punching the hole in
the washer).
(c) Schematic illustration of
making a washer in a
progressive die.
(d) Forming of the top piece of
an aerosol spray can in a
progressive die. Note that
the part is attached to the
strip until the last operation
is completed.
6 Transfer Dies
 In a transfer-die setup, the sheet metal undergoes different
operations at different stations of the machine which are
arranged along a straight line or a circular path.

 After each step in a station, the part is transferred to the next

station for further operations.

 Nearly the same as progressive dies, the part has to be free from the
strip to allow operations to be performed in a free state
 6 Miscellaneous Methods of Cutting
Sheet Metal
Laser-beam cutting is an important process typically used with computer-
controlled equipment to cut a variety of shapes consistently, in various
thicknesses, and without the use of any dies.

Water-jet cutting is a cutting process that is effective on many metallic as

well as nonmetallic materials.

Cutting with a band saw; this method is a chip-removal process.

Friction sawing involves a disk or blade which rubs against the sheet or plate
at high surface speeds.

Flame cutting is another common method, particularly for thick plates; it is

used widely in ship building and on heavy structural components.
6 Sheet Metal Bending
 Bending is one of the most common industrial forming operations.

 Straining sheet metal around a straight axis to take a permanent

bend

(a) Bending of sheet metal (b) Metal on inside of neutral plane is

compressed, while metal on outside
of neutral plane is stretched
6 Sheet Metal Bending
Figure (a) and (b) shows the effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on
cracking as a function of the direction of bending with respect to the
original rolling direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of
an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90°.

The bend allowance, is the length of the neutral axis in the bend and
is used to determine the length of the blank for a part to be bent.
6 Minimum Bend Radius
7  The radius at which a crack first appears at the outer fibers
of a sheet being bent is referred to as the minimum bend
radius.

T is the sheet thickness

6 Sheet Metal Characteristics and
Formability
 6 Types of Sheet Metal Bending
a) V‑bending - performed with a V‑shaped die
b) Edge bending - performed with a wiping die

 For low production  For high production

 Performed on a press brake  Pressure pad required
 V-dies are simple and inexpensive  Dies are more complicated and costly
6 Various Bending Operations
 Examples of various bending operations.
 6 Springback
When bending pressure is removed, elastic energy remains in bent part,
causing it to recover partially toward its original shape
In bending, this recovery is called springback, which can be observed easily
by bending and then releasing a piece of sheet metal or wire.

Springback in bending is seen as a decrease in bend angle and an increase in bend

radius: (1) during bending, the work is forced to take radius Rb and included angle
b' of the bending tool, (2) after punch is removed, the work springs back to radius
R and angle ‘.
6 Springback
7  Springback in forming operations usually is compensated for
by overbending the part.

methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations.

6 Other Sheet Metal Forming

Guerin Stretch
Ironing Embossing Process forming

Roll Explosive Electromagnetic

Spinning forming
forming forming
6 Ironing
 Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more uniform

Ironing to achieve more uniform wall thickness in a drawn cup:

(1) start of process; (2) during process. Note thinning and
elongation of walls.
6 Embossing

Creates indentations in sheet, such as raised (or indented)

lettering or strengthening ribs

Embossing: (a) cross‑section of punch and die configuration during

pressing; (b) finished part with embossed ribs.
 6 Guerin Process
 It is the oldest and most basic of the production rubber-pad forming
processes
 Process where sheet metal is pressed between a die and rubber block.
Under pressure, the rubber and sheet metal are driven into the die and
conform to its shape, forming the part.

Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after. Symbols v and F indicate motion and
applied force respectively.
6 Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to achieve shape change

Stretch forming: (1) start of process; (2) form die is pressed into the work with force
Fdie, causing it to be stretched and bent over the form. F = stretching force.
6 Roll Bending
Large metal sheets and plates are formed into curved
sections using rolls
6 Roll Forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls produce long
sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock

Roll forming of a continuous

channel section:
(1) straight rolls,
(2) partial form,
(3) final form.
 6 Spinning
Metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped
over a rotating mandrel using a rounded tool or roller

Tube spinning is used to produce Shear spinning: (1) setup at start of process; (2)
cylinder shapes and shear spinning is during spinning; and (3) completion of
used to produce cone or contoured process.
shapes.
 6
High‑Energy‑Rate Forming (HERF)
Processes to form metals using large amounts of energy over a very
short time

Explosive forming: (1) setup, (2) explosive is detonated, Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in
and (3) shock wave forms part and plume escapes which coil is inserted into tubular workpart
water surface. surrounded by die; (2) formed part.

Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) Sheet metal is deformed by
metal into a die cavity mechanical force of an
electromagnetic field induced in
 Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose the workpart by an energized coil
energy is transmitted to force part into cavity
 Presently the most widely used
 Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace
HERF process
industry
 Applications: tubular parts
6 Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

 High strength
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finish
 Relatively low cost
 Economical mass production for large quantities
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