UNIT

UNIT44: : ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTROSTATICS
· General:
The study of electric charges at rest is called electrostatics.
atom: Np+ = Ne-  Qnet = 0 Atom is electrically neutral.

Charging methods: rubbing, touching (sharing or conduction), and

electrostatic induction

Glass rubbed with silk becomes +vely charged !

Rubber rubbed with rug becomes –vely charged!
Reference
objects:
 4.1 Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law
 Electric fields:
 1e = 1.6 x 10 – 19C
Types of el. charge: +ve and -ve
proton: Q p+ = +1e e = elementary charge
electron: Q e- = - 1e,
 Q  = C, e, esu, …
 1C = 6 250 000 000 000 000 000 e
The space around an electrically charged object is called an
el. field.
El. fields are represented by drawing el field lines.
El. field lines are drawn by following a test charge in an el.
field. A test charge is a tiny +vely charged body.
+ve charge outward and -ve charge inward to the neucleous
b
. Direction: el. field lines are drawn from a + ve charge
towards a – ve charge.
lines of electric flux
. El. field lines do not cross each other.
el. lines of force or
. Close lines show strong fields;
and diverging and far apart lines show weak fields!
Neutral point:
It is possible for two, or more, el. fields to cancel each
other out and create a neutral point. Here, the resultant
field strength is zero. El. field lines or

 el. field strength:

Definition: E = Fel/qo   E  = N/C, …
  The electrostatic force exerted on any charge Q becomes:
Fel = Q.E

Exercise 1: An e- experiences a force of 4pN when passing

through an electric field. Determine the el.
emnetteetrength exerted on it.
 Charge movement:
In an el. field, p+ and e- are accelerated in OPPOSITE
directions.
 Fig. A force, F, is
exerted in the
direction of the field.
A particle enters perpendicularly :
Thus its vY is NOT affected.

F = q.E =const. and F = ma

 a = qE/m
WHY?
Time taken to cross field: v2x = d/t  t = d/v2x = d/v1; v2x= v1
=const
From v2Y = a.t, v2Y = (qE/m). d/v1 Y tan = v2Y/v2x
 = qEd/mv12
v2
X
 Exercise 2: An e- enters a uniform el. field of strength
4.8 x 108N/C at 4000 m/s horizontally.
Find the Calculate the electrostatic force

exerted on it at points A and B.

Solution: FA = FB = Motion
qE = … of the electron is like a projectile motion.
· Coulomb’s law:
F12 = F21 = Fel
K.Q1.Q2
Fel =
r2
K = ¼o= 9 x 109Nm2/C2
o= 8.85 x 10 – 12 F/m permittivity of
vacuum
It is a measure of how easy it is for an electric field to be set up in vacuum.

material > o  always

 E is independent of the charge of a test charge in E = F/qo

 Coulomb’s law holds only for point charges.

Fel >> FG, in our day to day activities!
 multiple charges:
All charged particles exert forces on each other.
Exercise 3: Three point charges are paced along a line. Find
the total electrostatic
force exerted on the
4-C charge by the
other two point charges.
Solution: F23  F13 Fig. FBD of Q3
Q3 and the forces
acting on it.
 Experimental verification of Coulomb’s law: See p. 151

 Gauss’s law:
Definition: electric flux () = EA = E.A.cos
 = V.m, …
A = An

The total el. flux enclosed in a Gaussian surface is:

 total = Q/o  Gauss’s law
Gaussian surface is a surface with
no holes or opening.
 A charged hollow metallic conductor:

. Charge resides only on

the outer surface!
. E inside = 0 for r < R.

. At the surface and beyond:

E  1/r 2
 E = K.Q/R2 at the surface

E = K.Q/ r 2 for r > R

 Example: For a charged sphere, E A at every point!
  total = (K.Q/R2).4R2 = 4KQ = Q/o

Derive el. field strength of a point charge from: Coulomb’s law, or

Gauss’s law
 Electric field between two parallel plates:
Taking only one plate:
tot = Q/o = E.A  E = Q/A.o = /o
 = Q/A surface charge density

E = /o capacitor equation

Between the plates: E = V/d = const.

 E = V/m ( N/C), …
Exercise 4: Calculate the force acting on an e- as it passes
between the two plates of a capacitor
of p.d. 500V and a separation of 40mm.

Solution: V = 500V, d=0.4m, e-: q = 1.6x10-19C, F = ?

Exercise 5: In a CRT, an e- is accelerated to the anode through

a distance of 3.6cm by a uniform el. field of

1.6 x 105V/m. At the anode, it passes through a hole and moves

to the screen 24cm away. Calculate the speed of the e- with
which it strikes the screen.
( Hint: Between anode and screen E = 0, f = 0. )
 Electric dipole:
An el. dipole is an atom or molecule in
which the +ve and – ve charges seem
to be separated.

permanent dipole
el. dipole: induced dipole
Fig. A water
instantaneous dipole
molecule
Example: A water molecule is a permanent dipole

p = q.d el. dipole moment

  p  = C.m, …

Micro oven
 Millikan’s oil-drop experiment: ( See p.157 )
It helped to determine the charge on an e-.
“e/m “ uniquely identifies a particle.
 Stokes’ law:
F = 6vr  force exerted on a spherical object of
radius r moving at a speed v through a liquid
of viscosity .
Millikan applied this law to determine the charges on oil drops:
At v terminal: F = mg = 6vterr;  = air viscosity
When an oil drop is stationary, mg = Q.E. …
4.2 Electric Potential
 el. absolute potential (V):

r 
A

Q Definition: VA= WA/ qo

The absolute
K.Q el. potential
 VA= r at point A

 V = J/C (  V ), …  1V = 1J/C

When W = +ve, a transported particle gains EPE,
W = -ve, a transported particle loses EPE.
 electric p.d. (V):
W BA
 
Q
A B

Definition:
el. p.d. ( voltage) VBA = WBA / qo

 VBA = (W A – W B )/qo = VA – VB
= K.Q ( 1/rA – 1/rB )
 The potential around a single point charge:
24cm
8cm A B
 
1800V 600V lower potential
16nC
higher potential

24cm
8cm
Exercise 6: a) How does an electron move in an electric field?
b) How does a proton move in an electric field?
Ans: a) An electron travels from a lower potential to a higher
potential always!
b) …
 Equipotentials:
An equipotential is a line ( in 2D space ), or a surface
( in 3D space ), joining points of equal potential.
N.B.:  El. field lines are perpendicular to an equipotential

surface.
. W = 0 along an equipotential surface.
 In a uniform el. field, equipotential lines, or surfaces,
are parallel.
 The equipotential surfaces of a point charge are
concentric spherical shells.
 In a given el. field, closer lines indicate higher p.d.
 Equipotentials in radial fields :
 Complex fields:
 Measuring equipotential: See on p.167
 E and V:
a) In a non-uniform el. field:
W F
V= q E= q
o o

r  E = (K.Q/r2) r = E.r
V = K.Q/r and E = K.Q/r2
 E = V/r For a point charge

b) In a uniform el. field:

VBA = WBA /qo = E.d
VBA = E.d
 Potential gradient:
E = V/r For the same ‘r’ if V is small
 weak field
and if V is large  strong field !
V/V

. The slope of the tangent represents the el.

field strength at that point ( from a point
charge at point o ).
. Near the charge,
r/m both E & V rise.
0

Fig. V – r graph of a point charge +ve charge ( radial field )

V = K.Q x 1/r
 el. potential energy ( EPE ):
For a system of point charges, EPE is the work done to
produce some configuration of the system of point charges.
W = q.V  EPE = W = q.V

 In a radial field:

This is the EPE of the

Fig.1 EPE = K.Q.q
r system of the two
point charges, or
also, it is the EPE of one of the charges in the el. field of the
other charge!
Fig.2 A system of three point
charges:
The EPE of the system is
 EPE in a uniform el. field:
Fig.3 A uniform field: E = const.
WBA = qo.VBA = EPE of ‘qo’.

= Fel.sBA =qo.E. sBA

 VBA = E. sBA

Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular

to el. field lines. Distances are measured
from the –ve plate, or 0V.
· Change of EPE:

W BA V = VA – VB = p.d.
  ( change of el. potential )
Q
A B
= K.Q( 1/rA – 1/rB ) =
= K.Q. r/r2 for r 0.
and also V = WBA/qo  WBA = qo.V
=  EPE
= EPE A – EPE B
= UA – U B
= U
 The law of conservation of EM:
An e- loses EPE as it moves nearer to a +vely charged
sphere.
When the e-, or any other charged particle, moves in an
el. field, EM = const.  EM = EP + EK = const.
 EPi + EKi = EPf + EKf   EK = - EP
 When EK , EP , or vice versa!
Exercise 7: Determine the change in the EPE of an e- when
it moves from a point 1 ( r1 = 10cm ) to another
point 2 ( r2 = 2cm ) in the el. field of a charged sphere of
0.05mC.
Solution: EPE = K.Q.qe( 1/r2 – 1/r1 )
= KQqe (1/2cm – 1/10cm)
e- =K.Qqe ( 4/10cm )

= 9x109x0.05x10-6x(- 1.6 x 10-19 ) x 4/10-2 = – 2.88x10 – 14J

Show that the e- would gain EPE if it is taken from point 2

to point 1 .
 To which category of forces do ‘friction’ and other ‘contact
forces’, such as kicking a ball or pulling on a rope belong?
4.3 Capacitors and Dielectrics
 Capacitance:

 = emf of battery
V = p.d. between capacitor plates
The charging process lasts a very short
time. Charging stops when V = 

stored charge Q  V
 Q = C.V
 Capacitance C = Q/V
 C  = C/V (  F (farad )), …
 1F = 1C/V
 capacitance Co = o.A/d in vacuum
C = .A/d with a dielectric
o = permittivity of vacuum
 = permittivity of dielectric

C/Co = .A/d = r relative permittivity

ova/d
( or dielectric constant )
r > 1  C > Co  C = r. o. A/d = r. Co
N.B.: . A capacitor breaks down beyond a certain voltage,
called breakdown voltage.
. ‘C’ depends only on plate area, plates separation, and
dielectric constant.
. A dielectric has a dielectric strength , this is a max. el.
field strength that it can withstand without breaking down.
( Beyond this critical el. field strength, the dielectric breaks
down, and C = 0.  Conducting capacitor. )
. Q
Fig. Q – V graph of a capacitor:
slope = C
(WHY?)
V area = W (stored energy)

. When a capacitor breaks down, charge leaks across the

plates of the capacitor.
Exercise 8: A capacitor stores 1.5mC of charge when it is
connected to a 60-V battery. Calculate its ‘C’.
Solution: Q = 1.5mC, V = 60V, C = ?

Exercise 9: If the break-down voltage of the capacitor in Ex.8

above is 120V, what is the ‘C’ of the capacitor at
90V? How much charge does it store at this voltage?
Solution: VB= 120V, at V = 90V, C =? and Q = ?
. How are capacitors constructed?
. p. 176 Gauss’s law and capacitance:
. A dielectric contains el. dipoles
 Combining capacitors –
 in parallel:
1.) V1= V2 = V3 = VR

2.) Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = QR

3.) C1.V + C2.V + C3.V = CR.V

 CR = C 1 + C 2 + C 3
 In series:
1.) V1+V2+V3 = VR
2.) Q1= Q2= Q3 = QR
3.) Q/C1+ Q/C2+ Q/C3=Q/CR

 1/CR = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

Exercise 10:
a) CT = ?
 b) Q1, Q2, Q3 = ?
  c) V1, V2, V3 = ?

  Energy stored in a capacitor:

Energy stored
 W = ½ Q.V in a capacitor

with C = Q/V, we also get:

W = ½ C.V2, or W = ½ Q2/C

 El. energy density ( u ): with

u=
W  u  = J/m 3
, …
volume (V) V/d = E
½ C.V2 ½ r. o. (A/d).V2
u= = = ½ r. o.E2
A.d A.d
 u = ½ r. o.E2
 Discharging a capacitor:
‘S’ closed, cap. charges:
Q = C.V
‘S’ opened, cur. flows
through R, cap. is discharging :
I = V/R
( instantaneous cur. )
Also, at any instant:
C = Q/V
I = - Q/t because charge decreases with time !

V/R = - dQ/dt  Q/C.R = - dQ/dt  - dQ/Q = dt/C.R  …

 Then, with Q = C.V and Qo = C.Vo :
 Substitute V = I.R and Vo = Io.R:

All Q, I, and V vary in the same manner.
The product ‘R.C’ has the characteristics of time.
 R.C =  is called a time constant .
When t = 1, it is called ‘ one time constant’ , etc.
Do you see that after t=1 only 37.8% of the total charge is
remains on the capacitor?
The time taken for Q = ½ Qo is called half-time: t1/2 = 0.69.

Do you see that within ‘2’ 86.5% of the charge on a capacitor is gone?
Now, it is considered almost empty.
Exercise 11: A 20-F capacitor is discharged through a
40-k resistor. How long will it take for the p.d.
across the capacitor to fall to 25% of its initial value?
Solution: C = 20F, R = 40k, V/Vo = 25% = 0.25; t = ?
Starting from V = Vo.e – t/R.C  V/Vo = 0.25 = e – t/R.C
– t/R.C = ln0.25 = - 1.386  t = 1.386 x R.C
= 1.386x4x104 x2x10 – 5F
= 1.1 s
  Charging a capacitor:
As the capacitor charges, I & Q change,
while ‘’ and ‘C’ do NOT change.
 = V C + VR I = dQ/dt
  = Q/C + I.R
V = I.R
Now, if we differentiate , we get:
d/dt = 0 = 1/C x dQ/dt + R.dI/dt
0 = 1/R.C x dQ/dt + dI/dt.
Since dQ/dt = I 0 = (1/R.C)x I + dI/dt
I = V/R
 dI/I = – dt/R.C,  I = Io.e – 1/R.C Io = Vo/R
 VR = Vo. e – 1/R.C VC =  - VR and Vo =  ,

 VC = (1 – e – 1/R.C) VC = Q/C Q = Qo(1 – e – 1/R.C )

 = Q /C
* graphs during charging:
 Uses of capacitors:
- smoothing circuits,
- filter circuits,
- tuning circuits,
- preventing sparking, etc.