Cell cycle & cell division

The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of

events that take place in a cell leading to its
division and duplication (replication).

In cells without a nucleus (prokaryotes), the cell

cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission.

In cells with a nucleus (eukaryotes), the cell cycle

can be divided in two brief periods:

• Interphase

• M phase/ Mitosis phase

Interphase—during which the cell grows,
accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis and
duplicating its DNA

Mitosis (M) phase, during which the cell splits itself

into two distinct cells, often called "daughter cells”

The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a

single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature
organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin,
blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed.
 Major events during a
eukaryotic cell division cycle
The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase
(synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase)
and M phase (mitosis).

M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes:

mitosis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided between the
two daughter cells, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm
divides forming distinct cells.

Activation of each phase is dependent on the pr

oper progression and completion of the previous one.

Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said

to have entered a state of quiescence called G
0 phase.
Can view the cell cycle as a clock
Resting (G0 phase)

The term "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both

quiescent and senescent cells.

Nonproliferative cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally

enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent
for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the
case for neurons).

This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated.

Cellular senescence is a state that occurs in response to DNA

damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny
nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-
destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis
G1 phase
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M
phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis is called G1 (G
indicating gap)

During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which had
been considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high
rate
This phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are
required in S phase, mainly those needed for DNA replication.
Duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the
same species
S phase

The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences;

when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been
replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids.

Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has
effectively doubled .

Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very

low during this phase. An exception to this is histone
production, most of which occurs during the S phase
G2 phase

The cell then enters the G2 phase, which lasts until the cell
enters mitosis.

Significant protein synthesis occurs during this phase,

mainly involving the production of microtubules, which are
required during the process of mitosis.

Inhibition of protein synthesis during G2 phase prevents the

cell from undergoing mitosis.
State Phase Abbreviation Description

quiescent/ A resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has
Gap 0 G0
senescent stopped dividing.

Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control

Gap 1 G1 mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA
synthesis.

Synthesis S DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Interphase

During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the

cell will continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control
Gap 2 G2
mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the
M (mitosis) phase and divide.

Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is

focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells.
Cell division Mitosis M A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (
Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to
complete cell division.
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the
chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two
daughter nuclei

It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which

divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane
into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares of
these cellular components.
M phase

 Prophase

 Metaphase

 Anaphase

 Telophase
Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the
centrosomes. The chromatin has
condensed.  
Normally, the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely
bundled coil called chromatin.

At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses together into

a highly ordered structure called a chromosome.

Since the genetic material has already been duplicated

earlier in S phase, the replicated chromosomes have two
sister chromatids, bound together at the centromere by the
cohesion complex.
Close to the nucleus are structures called centrosomes, which
are made of a pair of centrioles.

The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's

microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell
division, which replicates before a new mitosis begins, giving a
pair of centrosomes.

Molecular motor proteins then push the centrosomes along

these microtubules to opposite side of the cell.
Prometaphase: The nuclear
membrane has degraded, and
microtubules have invaded the
nuclear space. These microtubules
can attach to kinetochores or they
can interact with opposing
microtubules
The nuclear envelope disassembles and microtubules
invade the nuclear space.

This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in most

multicellular organisms.

Each chromosome forms two kinetochores at the

centromere, one attached at each chromatid. A kinetochore
is a complex protein structure it is the point where
microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome.

Prometaphase is sometimes considered part of prophase.

Metaphase: The chromosomes
have aligned at the metaphase
plate.  
As microtubules find and attach to kinetochores in
prometaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene
along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line
that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles.

This even alignment is due to the counterbalance of the pulling

powers generated by the opposing kinetochores, analogous to a
tug-of-war between people of equal strength.
Early anaphase: Kinetochore
microtubules shorten.  
When every kinetochore is attached to a cluster of microtubules
and the chromosomes have lined up along the metaphase plate,
the cell proceeds to anaphase

Two events then occur; First, the proteins that bind sister
chromatids together are cleaved, allowing them to separate.

These sister chromatids, which have now become distinct sister

chromosomes, are pulled apart by shortening kinetochore
microtubules and move toward the respective centrosomes to
which they are attached.

Next, the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate, pushing the

centrosomes apart to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: The decondensing
chromosomes are surrounded by
nuclear membranes.
Telophase is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase
events. It "cleans up" the after effects of mitosis.

At telophase, the nonkinetochore microtubules continue to

lengthen, elongating the cell even more. Corresponding sister
chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell.

A new nuclear envelope, using fragments of the parent cell's

nuclear membrane, forms around each set of separated sister
chromosomes.

Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclei,

unfold back into chromatin. Mitosis is complete, but cell
division is not yet complete
These two stages are sometimes called early and late
anaphase.

Early anaphase is usually defined as the separation of the

sister chromatids, while late anaphase is the elongation of
the microtubules and the chromosomes being pulled
farther apart.

At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating

identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct
populations.
Cytokinesis is often mistakenly thought to be the final part
of telophase; however, cytokinesis is a separate process that
begins at the same time as telophase.

Cytokinesis is technically not even a phase of mitosis, but

rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell
division.

Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its

parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-
phase
In normal cells, progress from one phase to the next is
always strictly controlled at so-called "checkpoints.“

Checkpoints can be considered safety measures that prevent

the start of another cell cycle event

 Before the previous one has finished,

 Before any damage to the cell has been properly
repaired

When cell division is unregulated and independent of

external cues, it has the potential of leading to one of the most
devastating disease -CANCER