Chapter 1

Introduction to Control Systems and

Mathematical Review
Dr.-Ing. Azmi Mohamed Yusof
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Content

 Learning outcome
 Definition and Concepts.
 Review of Laplace Transform
 Elements of Control Systems.
 Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems.
 Types of Controllers and Control Actions
 Introduction to Simulation Tool for Control System Design

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1.0 Learning outcome

At the end of this chapter, student should be able to state and apply
the fundamental principle of control system involving:-
 basic terminology of control system
 Applying Laplace transform in control system
 Classification of control system

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Fundamental concepts of control engineering

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Fundamental concepts of control engineering
 Engineering effort  Invent mechanical devices using power to serve
human purposes
 Manual Vs automatic control

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Fundamental concepts of control engineering
Definition / Terminology
 System
 It is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective.
 Controlled variable
 the quantity or condition that is measured and controlled
 It is the output or response for a given input

 The control signal or manipulated variable

 the quantity or condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the
value
of the controlled variable
 Plants
 It can be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts
 The purpose of which is to perform a particular operation

 Process
 a natural, progressively continuing operation or development marked by a
series of gradual changes
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Fundamental concepts of control engineering
 Feedback control
 an operation that, in the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the
difference between the output of a system and some reference input

Example
 A Watt’s speed governor
 How it is functioned?
 Changing the centrifugal
force of the speed governor
causes the control valve to
move, supplying fuel, and the
speed of the engine changes
until the desired value is
reached.
 The supply of fuel, and the
speed of the engine is
regulated until the desired
value is reached.
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Fundamental concepts of control engineering
Classifying the control system terminology - A Watt’s speed
governor
 Plant / controlled system  engine
 Controlled variable  speed of the engine
 Controlled signal  amount of fuel to be applied to the engine
 Error signals  The difference between the desired speed and the
actual speed
 Disturbance  An unexpected change in the load

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Review on Laplace transform
Laplace transform
 Representing the input, output, and system into mathematical
equation (differential equation) is very difficult
 Laplace transform  represents the input, output, and system
into separate entity
 Laplace transform is defined as
∞
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑠 =‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

 F(s) is called the Laplace transform of f(t)

 The inverse Laplace transform, which allows us to find f(t) given F(s),
is 𝜎 +𝑗 ∞
1
ℒ−1 𝐹 𝑠 ‫ 𝜎׬‬−𝑗 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
2𝜋
= ∞𝑗
 See table 1 for generic Laplace transform
pairs

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Review on Laplace transform
Laplace transform pairs

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Review on Laplace transform
Laplace transform pairs

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Review on Laplace transform
Example
Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Solution
∞
From 𝐹 𝑠 = ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞ ∞
= ‫ 𝑒 𝐴 ׬‬−𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐴 ‫׬‬ 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Thus 𝐹 𝑠 0 0

=− 𝐴 −𝑠 𝑡 ฬ𝑡 = ∞
𝑎+ 𝑒 𝑡= 0
𝑠
𝐴
=
𝑎+
𝑠

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Review on Laplace transform
Example
1
 Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹1 𝑠 (𝑠+3)2
=

Solution
 See Laplace transform table
1
 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠2
1
 𝐹𝑠 =  𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎 𝑡 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) and for this case 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑠+𝑎)2

1
 Thus, for 𝐹1 𝑠 𝑓1 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑠+3)2
=

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Review on Laplace transform
Partial fraction
 Convert a complicated function to a sum of simpler terms
 There are basically three types of partial fraction and the form of
partial fraction used is summarized in the table below

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Review on Laplace transform
Example :
 Resolve the following equation into partial fraction
𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

Solution
 Use long division method to yield
𝑠 3+2𝑠 +6𝑠+7
2
= =𝑠+1+
 𝐹𝑠 2
𝑠 2 +𝑠+5 𝑠 2 +𝑠+5

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Review on Laplace transform
Example :
 Resolve the following equation into partial fraction
11 − 3𝑠
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 − 3

Solution
 This is a type 1 function
11 − 3𝑠 11 − 3𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
𝐹 𝑠 = 2 = ≡ +
𝑠 + 2𝑠 − 3 (𝑠 − 1)(𝑠 + 3) 𝑠−1 (𝑠 +
3)
 Find A and B by equating the numerator of the both sides of equation
11 − 3𝑠 ≡ 𝐴 𝑠 + 3 + 𝐵 𝑠 − 1
 For s = −3, B = −5 ; For s = 1, A = 2
11 − 3𝑠 2 5
𝐹 𝑠 = ≡ −
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 − 3 𝑠−1 (𝑠 + 3)

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Review on Laplace transform
Example :
 Resolve the following equation into partial fraction
2𝑠 + 3
𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠 − 2)2

Solution
 This is a type 2 function
2𝑠 + 3 𝐵
𝐴
𝐹 𝑠 = ≡ +
(𝑠 − 2) 2 𝑠−2
(𝑠 − 2)2
 Find A and B by equating the numerator of the both sides of equation
2𝑠 + 3 ≡ 𝐴 𝑠 − 2 + 𝐵
 For s = 2, B = 7 ;  2𝑠 + 3 ≡ 𝐴𝑠 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵, Then 2𝑠 ≡ 𝐴𝑠, 𝐴 = 2
11 − 3𝑠 2 7
𝐹 𝑠 = ≡ +
𝑠2 + 2𝑠 − 3 𝑠−2
(𝑠 − 2)2
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Review on Laplace transform
Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation
 Differential equations generally involve derivatives and integrals of
the dependent variables with respect to the independent variable
 In general, a differential equation of nth-order is written as

 Which is also known as a linear ordinary differential equation if

the coefficients a0 , a1 , … ,an-1 are not a function of y(t)
 Our task is to convert the differential equation into y(t)
ℒ𝑓 𝑡
ℒ−1 𝑓 𝑡
𝑑 𝑛 𝑦 (𝑡 ) Y 𝑠 y(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡𝑛 + ⋯

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Review on Laplace transform
Example
 Given the following equation, solve for y(t) if all initial
differential are zero. Use the Laplace transform
conditions
𝑑2𝑦
𝑑𝑦 + 12 + 32𝑦 = 32 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡

Solution
 Refer to 𝑠Laplace
2 𝑌 𝑠 +transform pairs table
12𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 32𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑠32  𝑌 𝑠
32
𝑠(𝑠 2 +12𝑠+32)
=
 Use partial fraction to simplify the equation
32 32
𝑌 𝑠 = = ≡ 𝐴𝐶 𝐵
 A = 1, B = -2, C = 1
𝑠(𝑠 2+12𝑠+32) +
1 + 2 1
𝑌𝑠 (𝑠𝑠+4)(𝑠
= +8) − 𝑠 +
𝑠 +8 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 𝑠 +4𝑠 + 8
 Inverse for Laplace transform yield, 𝑦 𝑡 1 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
=
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Tutorial exercise
Obtain the Laplace transforms for the following time
functions
1
 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) | Ans : 𝐹 𝑠
𝑠2
=
𝜔
 𝑓𝑡
(𝑠+𝑎) 2 +𝜔 2
=𝑒 −𝑎 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) | Ans : 𝐹 𝑠
𝑠+
 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑎
(𝑠+𝑎) 2 +𝜔 2
6
 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) | Ans : 𝐹 𝑠
𝑠4
=

Find the inverse Laplace transform of :-

3
= 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) | Ans : 𝐺 𝑠
 𝐹 𝑠 = (𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
𝑠+
3 | Ans : 𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
=
3
𝑠 +5𝑠 2
+9𝑠+7
=
(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
| Ans : 𝑔 𝑠 = 𝑑𝑑 𝛿 𝑡 + 2𝛿 𝑡 + 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
 𝐺𝑠 𝑡
2𝑠 +12
| Ans : 𝑓 𝑡 = 5𝑒 −𝑡 sin 2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −𝑡 cos 2𝑡
𝑠 2 +2𝑠+5
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Transfer function
 The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function)
 For n-th order time variant differential equation

 Assuming all initial conditions are zero, it reduces into

 Taking the ratio between the output [C(s)] and in the input [R(s)],

ℒ[𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡] 𝐶(𝑠)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐺(𝑠) = =
ℒ[𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡] 𝑅(𝑠)

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Transfer function
Example
 Find the transfer function represented
by 𝑑 𝑐(𝑡)
+ 2 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Solution
 From the Laplace transformed pairs table we have,
𝑠𝐶 𝑠 + 2 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠)  𝐶
𝑠 𝑠+2 = 𝑅(𝑠)
 The transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) = 1
𝑅(𝑠)
𝑠+2

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Transfer function
Example
 Find the transfer function, corresponding to the differential
equation 𝑑 2𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑟(𝑡)
= +4 +3𝑟𝑡
𝑑 3 𝑐 (𝑡 ) 𝑑 2 𝑐 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
+3 +7 +5𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡3 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡

Solution
 From Laplace table,

𝑠3𝐶 𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 𝐶 𝑠 + 7𝑠 + 5 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 𝑅 𝑠 + 4𝑠𝑅 𝑠 +
𝐶𝑠 3𝑅(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 {𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 5 } = 𝑅 𝑠 {𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3}
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 +
5
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Elements of control system
Block diagram
 A block diagram is used to represent the mathematical relationship
of control systems
 All system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks.
 The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical
operation on the input signal to the block that produces the output
 The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in
the corresponding blocks

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Elements of control system
Summing point
 symbol that indicates a summing operation
 Plus at each arrowhead indicates that signal is to be added
 Minus sign at each arrowhead indicates that signal is to be
subtracted
 It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have
the same dimensions and the same units

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Elements of control system
Branch point
 A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points

𝐸 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 −𝐶 𝑠

𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐸 (𝑠
)

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Elements of control system
Automatic controller

 An automatic controller  compares the actual value of the plant

output with the reference input (desired value),
  determines the deviation
  produces a control signal that will reduce the deviation to zero or to
a small value
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Elements of control system
Example
 A temperature control system operates by sensing the difference
between the thermostat setting and the actual temperature and then
opening a fuel valve an amount proportional to this difference. Draw a
functional closed-loop block diagram identifying the input and output
transducers, the controller, and the plant. Further, identify the input and
output signals of all subsystems.

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Elements of control system
Solution

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Open loop and close loop system
Open loop system
 systems in which the output has no effect on the control action
 the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the
input
 Example : toaster
 The controlled variable (output) of a toaster is the color of the toast
 the toast will be darker the longer it is subjected to heat
 Toaster does not measure the colour of the toast

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Open loop and close loop system
Closed loop system
 Consist of a feedback control system
 A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output
and the reference input by comparing them and using the difference as
a means of control
 the actuating error signal is fed to the controller so as to reduce the
error and bring the output of the system to a desired value
 Example : Air conditioning unit
 thermostat turns the heating or cooling equipment on or off
 to ensure that the room temperature remains at a comfortable level
 regardless of outside conditions

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Types of controllers and control actions
Industrial controllers can be divided into:-
1. Two-position or on–off controllers
2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative
controllers

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Types of controllers and control actions
Two-position or on–off controllers
 The actuating element has only two fixed positions, simply on and off
 Let the output signal from the controller be u(t) and the actuating
error signal be e(t).
𝑒 𝑡 >0
𝑢 𝑡 =
𝑈1
𝑈2 𝑒 𝑡 <0
ቊ

(a) Block diagram of an on–off controller; (b) block diagram of an on–off

controller with differential gap

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Types of controllers and control actions

 Example : Steam heating in water heating system

 If the thermostat is set at 60oC, the valve would not know whether to on
or off at 60oC
 The best practice is to set a switching differential (i.e tolerance ±1oC).
This means that lower limit is 59oC and upper limit is 60oC
 The temperature of the tank contents will fall to 59°C before the
valve is
asked to open and will rise to 61°C before the valve is instructed to
close.
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Types of controllers and control actions
Proportional controllers (P)

 The principle aim is to control the process as the conditions change.

 Example : a cold water tank is supplied with water via a float
operated
control valve. B is the desired water level
 P-band  The system can be said to be in balance (the flowrate of
water entering and leaving the tank is the same). The load level is 50%
 Off band  The valve will be fully closed & water level may reach at A.
The load level is 100%
 Wider P-Band  The valve
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Types of controllers and control actions
Proportional controllers (P)…
 The larger the proportional band, the more stable the control, but
the greater the offset.
 The narrower the proportional band, the less stable the process, but
the smaller the offset

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Types of controllers and control actions
Integral controllers
 Proportional only controllers (P) are not adequate since they cannot
bring the process back exactly to setpoint under the influence of process
load changes
 How to overcome this?  include reset function
 In integral action the controller continues to change until the
error becomes zero
 Adding automatic reset action to a proportional controller, the offsets can
be eliminated.
 In integral control action, the value of the controller output u(t) is
changed at a rate proportional to the actuating error signal

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Types of controllers and control actions
Proportional-plus-integral controllers (PI)
 The main disadvantage of the integral mode is that the controller output
does not immediately direct the final control element to a new position
in response to an error signal.
 The controller output changes at a defined rate of change, and time
is needed for the final control element to be repositioned.
 P-I combines the immediate output characteristics of a
proportional control mode with the zero residual offset
characteristics of the integral mode.
 The proportional gain provides fast error response.
 The integrator drives the system to a 0 steady-state error.

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Types of controllers and control actions
P – I control system

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Derivative controller
 Derivative control can be said as a crude prediction of the error in
future, based on the current slope of the error
 The time for which the error is expected to occur is said the
derivative time (Td).
 The derivative control mode gives a controller additional control
action when the error changes consistently.
 It also makes the loop more stable (up to a point) which allows using a
higher controller gain and a faster integral (shorter integral time or
higher integral gain).
 Example in Temperature Loops  Temperature control loops normally
have smooth measurements and long time constants.
 The process variable of a temperature loop tends to move in the
same direction for a long time, so its slope can be used for predicting
future error. So temperature loops are ideal candidates for using
derivative control
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Types of controllers and control actions
Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
 Measures and responds to the rate of change of process signal,
and adjusts the output of the controller to minimize overshoot.
 derivative action will minimize the deviation from the set point when
there is a change in the process condition
 Excellent for motion control

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Types of controllers and control actions
Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers (PID)

Manual Vs PID controller performing automatic control

 The operator sets the PID controller’s set point (SP) to the desired
temperature,
 the controller’s output (CO) sets the position of the control valve.
 The temperature measurement, called the process variable (PV), is
then transmitted to the PID controller,
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Types of controllers and control actions
Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers (PID)…
 PID compares the set point and calculates the difference, or error
(E), between the two signals.
 Based on the error and the controller’s tuning constants, the controller
calculates the appropriate controller output to set the control valve at
the correct position to keep the temperature at the set point.
 If the temperature rises above its set point, the controller will reduce
the valve position and vice versa.
 Each of the controller’s three modes reacts differently to the error.
 The amount of response produced by each control mode is adjustable
by changing the controller’s tuning settings.

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