Ethics (Part I)
What is the GOOD LIFE?
This question became a problem when man started
thinking;
Ancient times never considered the SELF and OTHER
PERSON as a problem
Concept of UTOPIA – state of nature; man lives
according to his nature of being good; people living in
harmony;
Ancient eastern world: man and nature are inseparable;
aim of human thought (reason/philosophy) is not
attainment of material and intellectual greatness; but
the perfection of the self (existence); not concerned
with metaphysics and epistemology; philosophy and
religion are inseparable
Ancient western world: people living in diaspora
Implication of Civilization
Civilization led man to think in spatiotemporal
dimension; philosophy began to flourish;
People began to fear a non-existing entity;
Human mind as linear; “connected to”; concept of
cause and effect;
Idea of goodness and beauty became “connected
with man’s daily activities;”
Basic question: what makes a man a human person?
(meaning of human life and importance of doing
good deeds).
Man as a Person of Goodness and
Truth
Philosophers realized that man is the only earthly creature
who has capacity to ask the question about the meaning of his
life; capacity of reflection/reasoning;
John Locke: human person is a “thinking, intelligent being;”
man’s capacity to distinguish good from bad;
Immanuel Kant: human person as “an autonomous self-
regulating will” capable of making moral decisions by and for
himself;
Victor Frankl: human being is “self-determining;’ man’s
orientation for truth and goodness binds him towards
affirmation of the spiritual freedom and dignity of others;
Erich Fromm: human person as “creature with conscience;”
St. Thomas Aquinas: man discovers moral law because of his
conscience (totality of the human person);
The Need to Redefine Ethics
Development of science and technology resulted to change in
man’s concept of goodness;
Concept of goodness is connected to physical pleasures;
Basis of morality: measurement of pleasure and pain
Moral dilemmas concerning life, health and death;
Plato: Ethics is the Supreme Philosophy; as it deals with
HAPPINESS, man’s highest good;
Confucius, Plato and Aristotle: philosophers must be the
RULERS of all people because of the golden maxim: salus
populi est suprema lex (the welfare of the people is the
supreme law.
Ethics (Working Definition)
“Practical and normative science, based on reason which studies
human acts and provides norms for their goodness and badness.”
Practical science – systematized body of knowledge of the grounds and
norms of morality; application of human knowledge and its practicality
to human experience;
Normative science – ethics sets rules and guidelines to maintain sens of
direction to human action;
Based on reason – ethics is different from religion; religion bases its
truth on FAITH, philosophy accepts truth on the basis of REASON;
HUMAN ACTS – based on KNOWLEDGE and FREE WILL;
ACTS OF MAN – absence of knowledge and free will;
Relation of Ethics with Other
Sciences
1. Ethics and Logic. Human person will not be able to acquire the
knowledge of right living without having obtained the knowledge of
right thinking.
2. Ethics and Psychology. If psychology studies how man behaves,
ethics deals with how man ought to behave.
3. Ethics and Sociology. Moral order includes social order;
4. Ethics and Economics. As one works to earn a living, he has to
consider the welfare of others.
5. Ethics and Education.
6. Ethics and Law. A human person who obeys the law must understand
why the law is good, why it is for the common observance and
benefit.
7. Ethics and Aesthetics. Goodness and beauty are intertwined with
moral goodness
8. Ethics and Politics. Attainment of good government through moral
standards.
9. Ethics and Religion. Both describe right living as a means of attaining
man’s goal; similar postulates on existence of God, freedom of will
Divisions of Ethics
1. General Ethics – refers to divine ethical formulations of general
and universal concepts and principles which serve as the
foundation of morality.
A. Normative Ethics – deals with norms of morality;
B. Non-normative/Descriptive – deals with factual
investigation of the social patterns of a society;
2. Applied Ethics – focuses on particular situations where
principles of ethics can be applied; also called Special Ethics;
Examples: Bioethics; Legal Ethics; Judicial Ethics
Relativism vs Absolutism
Family; community, religion, virtual world (social media), popular
culture
What is the basis of culture and morality?
Is it possible to have a universal moral principle?
Cultural Relativism – ethical systems and cultural beliefs vary from
one culture to another; moral standards are produced by society;
Protagoras of Abdera (490 -420 BCE)– oldest and most influential
of all the Athenian sophists;
Three (3) claims:
1. “man is the measure of all things, of all that are that they are, and
of the things that are not that they are not.” (no universal
standard for perception; everything is true)
2. He could make the worse argument appear better or the weaker
argument appear to be stronger;
3. One could not tell if the gods existed or not;
RELATIVISM: There is no universal or absolute moral
standard:
Ethical/Moral Relativism – law and moral rules are based
upon convention, not upon nature.
Cultural, moral and ethical relativists - there are no universal
or absolute moral principles. Standards of right and wrong
are always relative to a particular culture or society.
ABSOLUTISM: There is an absolute value system:
Ethnocentrism – one particular ethnic group is superior to all
others (man-centered);
Theocentrism – God’s law is the absolute standard (God-
centered);
Development of Moral Character
Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas: morality of an action is
based on the person who did the action.
Goodness of an action is based on the character of the moral agent.
Character – moral aspect of a person;
Aristotle: concept of morality is excellence; man’s excellence is
measured by his function; i.e. if a persons acts excellently, he is a
superior character;
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development - there must be a
consensus of rightness;
Kohlberg was influenced by Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development
of children;
Moral psychology – studies what moral development is;
Moral philosophy – studies what moral development ought to be;
Stages of Moral Development
1. Pre-Conventional Stage (Self-Focused Stage)- moral code/authority
is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical
consequences of actions;
A. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation – obey rules
and avoid punishment.
B. Stage 2: Pleasure Orientation/Instrumental-Purposive Orientation
– hedonistic orientation; idea of reciprocity (exchange of favors);
2. Conventional State (Group-Focused Stage)
A. Stage 3: Peer and Group Acceptance Orientation – the ”good boy
orientation;” what is morally right is what pleases or helps others
or what is approved by others.
B. Stage 4: Social Structure Orientation – concerned with wider
rules of society; uphold the law and avoid guilt; individual is expected
to show respect to law, authority and society.
3. Post-Conventional Stage – based on self-chosen principles and
moral reasoning;
A. Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation – emphasizes equality
and mutual obligation; recognition of rights of others;
obligations are based on calculations of overall utility (i.e.
what is good for all based on basic human society and basic
human agreements);
B. Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle – focused on the
principles of conscience that have logical comprehensiveness
and universality; highest value is placed on the human
life, on equality and on human dignity; at this stage, an
individual has developed his own set of moral guidelines
which may or may not fit the law; the individual is prepared
to defend his own moral principles, regardless of
consequences.
- according to Kohlberg, people rarely reach this stage.
Morality and Feelings
David Hume (1711-1776) – virtue is in conformity to reason; moral
judgments are formed not by reason alone, but through feelings;
moral sentiments are found in all people;
Agreeableness and usefulness are the basis for morality; (for the
interest of those who would be directly or indirectly affected by a
particular action); Hume’s approach to morality is EMPIRICAL
(experience-based);
However, 16th century, philosophers placed greater emphasis on the
prominence of reason over feelings;
Religious apologists: moral decisions must be based on religious
laws/doctrines;
Western thinkers: foundation of morality is reason
Ancient Greek philosopher, Plato: function of reason is to rule
appetites and emotions;
Stoics: human person must be able to control his passion with
reason in order to live a moral life; right reason is law;
Rene Descartes: reason prevails over church laws and religious
Reason and Impartiality
Thomas Nagel (American philosopher) – morality must not be based on
feelings (which may be irrational or produced by prejudice, selfishness or
cultural conditioning);
Morality must be IMPARTIAL/OBJECTIVE, i.e. based on reason;
A morally accepted decision is one based on rational arguments; but not
every reason is good; result: difficulty in establishing a universal moral
decision due to disagreements
Problem with moral based on impartiality:
1. What degree of impartiality must be taken into consideration to determine
whether an action if morally acceptable or not?
2. Is an impartial action more moral?
3. How do we strike the balance between what one cares about personally, to
what matters impartially?
A conscientious moral agent is one who is willing to “listen to reason even
when it means revising prior convictions, and who is willing to act on the
results of this deliberation.”
Moral Reasoning Process
[Link] the facts – what do we know? What do
we need to know?
[Link] the ethical issues – moral dilemma
represents competing interests;
[Link] relevant ethical guidelines – use biblical,
constitutional and natural law principles;
[Link] consultation
[Link] the alternative courses of action – requires
creative thinking;
[Link] the alternatives with the principles
[Link] the consequences
[Link] a decision
