Chapter 4
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PLANT ANATOMY
Concepts
1. Introduction
2. Cell types
Meristematic cells
Parenchyma cells
Collenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells
3. The internal arrangement of cells
Roots
Stems
Leaves
Flowers
Concepts
Plant cell can be classified into the following basic types: meristematic and their
immediate derivatives, parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma
Simple tissues consist of one cell type, whereas complex tissues contain more than one of
the basic cell types
The four plant organs are roots, stems, leaves, and flowers
Generally, the organization of monocots and dicots is similar, but they each have
distinctive arrangements of cells and tissues in their organs
The four parts of flowers are sepals, petals, anthers and pistil
The study of plant anatomy is useful for understanding plant development, determining the
origin cells and tissues in situ and in vitro, and identifying the mode of regenerated plants
in culture
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter explores some of the anatomy, or internal organization (cells, tissues, and
organs), of angiosperms. The first, we look the cell type, and then compare and contrast
the anatomy of monocotyledonous (monocot) and dicotyledonous (dicot) tissues and
organs. For the purpose of this book, we consider angiosperms to have the following 4
organs: roots, stems, leaves and flowers
Plants, like other complex organisms, are constructed of cells, the basic unit of life
Most plant cells are surrounded by a more or less rigid wall, composed of a variety of
structural polymers including cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
The wall may be relatively thin, as in many parenchyma cells, or rather thick, as in
collenchyma and sclerenchyma cell types
Cell may have only a primary cell wall usually contain cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectic compounds referred to as middle lamella
Lamella acts as “cement” between adjacent cells
In contrast, secondary walls found in some cells are deposited over or integrated into
a primary wall and middle lamella after the primary wall has been completed
Secondary wall contains cellulose and hemicellulose and lignin or may not be present
2. CELL TYPES
2.1. Meristematic cells
Meristematic cells are very thin walled cell that undergo mitosis to increase the length
(apical meristem) or thickness (lateral meristem) of the organ
The meristematic initials (stem cells) reproduce themselves as well as form new cells,
termed derivatives, that increase the body of the plant
These derivative cells usually continue to divide several times before any significant
differentiation into other cell types occurs
The initials and derivative cells constitute the apical meristem, which can be found at
shoot (fig7.4A) and root tip (fig7.1A)
The apical meristem may be divided further into the tunica and corpus
The tunica (coat) is one to several cell layers thick and divides only by anticlinal
divisions to increase the surface area of the tip and to surround the corpus (body)
The corpus consists of a number of cells that divide in different planes to increase the
volume of the meristem
The shoot apical meristem can be divided into a peripheral zone, which gives rise to
leaves, buds, and flowers (lateral organs) and the rib zone, which produces the stem
tissues
Several cell layer distal to the apical meristem and the rib zone, the procambium
(vascular), ground meristem (cortex), and protoderm (epidermis) of the stem, are
differentiated and give rise to the primary tissues of the plant body
Primary growth of the plant is bought about from the activities of apical meristems
and subsequent divisions and differentiation of the derivative cells into tissue and
organs of the plant
Secondary growth exhibited by many dicots is achieved through specialized lateral
meristems
The vascular cambium (fig7.5A), located between the primary phloem and the primary
xylem, produce cells that differentiate into additional vascular tissue – i.e, secondary
phloem and xylem – which increases the girth of stems and roots
Another lateral meristem, the phellogen or cork cambium, is found near the exterior
of stems and roots and arise in the primary cortex.
It produce phellem and phelloderm cells that replace the epidermis and cortex,
respectively, which are lost or crushed to the expanding diameter of the root or stem
Meristem
1.2. Parenchyma cells
They are typical nearly isodiameter; however, cells may vary in shape, some being elongated
or even lobed
The primary cell wall is relatively thin, and is composed mainly of cellulose and hemicellulose
with a layer of pectic substances (middle lamella) on the exterior of the primary wall
Parenchyma cells always have nuclei and functioning protoplasts (cytoplasm)
These cells are generally considered to be undifferentiated. Indeed, this cell type and tissue is
involved in the development of adventitious roots and shoots, wound healing, and other
activities
This cell type can be found through the body of the plant in primary and secondary tissues
1.3. Collenchyma cells
They are typically more elongated than parenchyma cells, and are specialized to function as
mechanical support for the plant
Collenchyma cells have soft, pliable, unevenly thickened primary walls composed mostly of
cellulose with some pectin, but never lignin
Collenchyma cells are similar to parenchyma cells in having nuclei and living protoplasm,
and are capable of dedifferentiation and meristematic activity
This type of cell is generally found in young stems (fig7.5D) and leaf petioles. It functions as
flexible supporting tissue
1.4. Sclerenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells can be long and thin (fig7.5A) or isodiamteric to elongated
(sclerids)
They are involved in mechanical support and water conduction
Specific cell types include fibers, vessel elements, tracheids, and sclerids
The hallmark of sclerenchyma cells is the deposition of a secondary wall on the
interior of the primary wall
The secondary wall is laid down after the growth of the cell ceases.
The wall is composed primarily of cellulose arranged in parallel fibers and usually
lacks of pectic compounds
Although many sclerenchyma cells are dead (lack of protoplasm) at functional
maturity, some cell type may retain living protoplasm
Sclerenchyma cells are highly differentiated and are usually considered incapable of
dedifferentiating and resuming meristematic activity
3. THE INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS
3.1. Roots (fig7.1-7.2-7.3)
3.2. Stems (fig7.4-7.5
3.3. Leaves (fig7.6)
3.4. Flowers (fig7.7-7.8)
Fig 4.1: Root apical meristem and lateral root origin
(A) Near median longitudinal section through a young corn (Zea mays) root. The calyptrogen,
in this case, give rise to the cells of the root cap. In other roots, including those of many
dicots, the root cap is derived from the apical meristem. The three meristematic areas are the
protoderm (which give rise to the epidermis), the ground meristem (cortex), and the
procambium (vascular tissue). Arrows indicate muscilagious wall substance. (B) A young
lateral (secondary) bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) root that originated from the pericycle. Note that
as the lateral root develops, it pushes through and crushed the cortical and epidermal tissues
of the primary root. The architecture of lateral roots is similar to that of primary roots.
Fig 4.1a: Root apical meristem and lateral root origin
(A) Near median longitudinal section through a young corn (Zea mays) root. The calyptrogen,
in this case, give rise to the cells of the root cap. In other roots, including those of many dicots,
the root cap is derived from the apical meristem. The three meristematic areas are the
protoderm (which give rise to the epidermis), the ground meristem (cortex), and the
procambium (vascular tissue). Arrows indicate muscilagious wall substance.
Fig 4.1b: Root apical meristem and lateral root origin
(B) A young lateral (secondary) bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) root that originated from the
pericycle. Note that as the lateral root develops, it pushes through and crushed the cortical
and epidermal tissues of the primary root. The architecture of lateral roots is similar to that of
primary roots.
Fig 4.2: Dicot and monocot root structure
(A) Cross-section of a buttercup (Ranunculus species), a dicot root. Note the arrangement
of tissues and the lack of pith in the center. (B) Higher magnification of the central area
shown in fig7.1A. The stele includes all vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), the vascular
cambium (discernible only by relative position in the young root), and the pericycle. It does
not include the endodermis. Note the large xylem vessels in the center and the thickened
walls (Casparian strips) of the endodermal cell. (C) Cross-section of a large corn (Zea
mays), a monocot root. Note the central core of pith and the very large xylem vessels. (D)
Enlargement of the vascular area of the cross-section shown in fig7.1C
Fig 4.2a: Dicot and monocot root structure
(A) Cross-section of a buttercup (Ranunculus species), a dicot root. Note the arrangement
of tissues and the lack of pith in the center.
Fig 4.2b: Dicot and monocot root structure
(B) Higher magnification of the central area shown in fig7.1A. The stele includes all vascular
tissue (xylem and phloem), the vascular cambium (discernible only by relative position in the
young root), and the pericycle. It does not include the endodermis. Note the large xylem
vessels in the center and the thickened walls (Casparian strips) of the endodermal cell.
Fig 4.2c: Dicot and monocot root structure
(C) Cross-section of a large corn (Zea mays), a monocot root. Note the central core of pith
and the very large xylem vessels.
Fig 4.2d: Dicot and monocot root structure
(D) Enlargement of the vascular area of the cross-section shown in fig7.1C
Fig 4.3: Somatic embryo of Cercis canadensis that originated from root tissue.
Near median longitudinal section through the somatic embryo and oblique section through
the root, which developed from a callus culture (see inset). Close examination of serial
sections revealed five distinct but fused somatic embryos from a common suspensor
(arrow), which originated from the apical area of the root
Fig 4.4: Apical and lateral (axilary) shoot meristem
(A) Longitudinal section through the stem tip of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The apical
meristem (AM) is surrounded by a number of very young leaf primodia (LP) and more
developed leaves (L). (B) Longitudinal section through a node of catnip (Nepeta cataria). The
axillary bud (Ax. Bud) is located in the axil formed by the leaf petiole (PET) and the stem.
Note the vascular tissue (VT) extending from the petiole and connecting to the vascular tissue
of the stem (arrow). The AM is dome-shaped and the VT has differentiated (see inset). (TR)
trichome)
Fig 4.4a: Apical and lateral (axilary) shoot meristem
(A) Longitudinal section through the stem tip of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The apical
meristem (AM) is surrounded by a number of very young leaf primodia (LP) and more
developed leaves (L).
Fig 4.4b: Apical and lateral (axilary) shoot meristem
(B) Longitudinal section through a node of catnip (Nepeta cataria). The axillary bud (Ax. Bud)
is located in the axil formed by the leaf petiole (PET) and the stem. Note the vascular tissue
(VT) extending from the petiole and connecting to the vascular tissue of the stem (arrow). The
AM is dome-shaped and the VT has differentiated (see inset). (TR) trichome
Fig 4.5: Anatomy of dicot and monocot stems
(A) Cross-section of a bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) stem. Note the prominent pith and the cap of phloem fibers
(PF). Secondary xylem (SX) and secondary phloem (SP) tissues, which originated from the interfascicular
vascular cambium (IFC) and fascicular cambium (FC), are also common in dicot stems (inset). (PP) primary
phloem; PX= primary xylem. (B) Longitudinal section of a bean illustrates the arrangement of tissues in the stem.
Arrows indicate xylem vessels with helical secondary wall pattern. E= epidermis. (C) Cross-section of an older
corn (zea mays) stem. Notice that vascular bundles are scattered through out the stem and embedded in
fundamental tissue (Fund.tiss.). The vascular bundles contain only primary xylem (X) and phloem (P) tissues
(vascular cambium absent) with a prominent lacuna (L) or air space (inset). Arrows indicate sclerenchyma cells
of the sheath. (D) Cross-section through the stem of catnip (Nepeta cataria) and a longitudinal section through
an adventitiuos root. The root, which originated near the primary phloem and vascular tissue (arrows), has
differentiated and connected to the vascular tissue (Vasc.tiss.) in the stem. (Coll) collenchyma tissue
Fig 4.5a: Anatomy of dicot and monocot stems
(A) Cross-section of a bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) stem. Note the prominent pith and the cap
of phloem fibers (PF). Secondary xylem (SX) and secondary phloem (SP) tissues, which
originated from the interfascicular vascular cambium (IFC) and fascicular cambium (FC), are
also common in dicot stems (inset). (PP) primary phloem; (PX) primary xylem.
Fig 4.5b: Anatomy of dicot and monocot stems
(B) Longitudinal section of a bean illustrates the arrangement of tissues in the stem. Arrows
indicate xylem vessels with helical secondary wall pattern. (E) epidermis.
Fig 4.5c: Anatomy of dicot and monocot stems
(C) Cross-section of an older corn (Zea mays) stem. Notice that vascular bundles are
scattered through out the stem and embedded in fundamental tissue (Fund.tiss.). The
vascular bundles contain only primary xylem (X) and phloem (P) tissues (vascular cambium
absent) with a prominent lacuna (L) or air space (inset). Arrows indicate sclerenchyma cells
of the sheath.
Fig 4.5d: Anatomy of dicot and monocot stems
(D) Cross-section through the stem of catnip (Nepeta cataria) and a longitudinal section
through an adventitiuos root. The root, which originated near the primary phloem and
vascular tissue (arrows), has differentiated and connected to the vascular tissue
(Vasc. tiss.) in the stem. Coll (collenchyma tissue)
Fig 4.6: Leaf anatomy
(A)Cross-section of a dicot leaf (privert: Ligustrum species). A large midvein, with xylem (X) toward the top
(adaxial) surface and phloem (P) oriented toward the abaxial (bottom) surface, is shown. The mesophyll is
differentiated into palisade (PL) and spongy (S) layers, with stomata and guard cells (arrow) on the bottom
surface (see inset). (B) Cross-section through a corn (Zea mays) leaf, a typical monocot. Notice that the
epidermis contains specialized buliform cells and that the mesophyll tissue is not differentiated into layers.
Stomata and guard cells are associated with a large substomatal cavities (*). (C) Adventitious shoots and roots
forming directly from a num leaf segment cultured on medium containing cytokinin. (D) Cross-section through the
leaf segment and longitudinal sections through several adventitious shoots shown in fig7.6C. Note the lack of an
intermediate callus and the vascular connections (arrow pairs) between the adventitious shoots and the leaf
mesophyll. (E) epidermis; (AM) apical meristem
Fig 4.6a: Leaf anatomy
(A) Cross-section of a dicot leaf (privert: Ligustrum species). A large midvein, with xylem (X)
toward the top (adaxial) surface and phloem (P) oriented toward the abaxial (bottom) surface,
is shown. The mesophyll is differentiated into palisade (PL) and spongy (S) layers, with
stomata and guard cells (arrow) on the bottom surface (see inset).
Fig 4.6b: Leaf anatomy
(B) Cross-section through a corn (Zea mays) leaf, a typical monocot. Notice that the
epidermis contains specialized buliform cells and that the mesophyll tissue is not
differentiated into layers. Stomata and guard cells are associated with a large substomatal
cavities (*).
Fig 4.6c: Leaf anatomy
(C) Adventitious shoots and roots forming directly from a num leaf segment cultured on
medium containing cytokinin.
Fig 4.6d: Leaf anatomy
(D) Cross-section through the leaf segment and longitudinal sections through several
adventitious shoots shown in fig7.6C. Note the lack of an intermediate callus and the vascular
connections (arrow pairs) between the adventitious shoots and the leaf mesophyll.
(E) epidermis; (AM) apical meristem
Fig 4.7: Flower anatomy
Fig 4.7a: Flower anatomy
(A) Cross-section through a Geranium species (Stork’s-bill) flower. Progress from the outside
inward, sepals (SEP), petals (PET), and filaments (FIL: the stalks of the anther) and ovary
(ovy) are borne. Occupying the center of the flower is the ovary (OVY), which is composed of
5 carpels (CAR) in which 2 ovules (OVL) are born. Note: only a single ovule can be seen in
each locule (space) with this section
Fig 4.7b: Flower anatomy
(B) Longitudinal section through the Stork’s-bill flower seen in fig7.7A. In this view, 2
capels (CAR) and locules (LOC) of the avary (OVY) are visible, but each contains only 2
ovules (OVL), of which only one will mature. Note the trichomes (hairs) on the style (STY)
portion of the ovary. The sepals (SEP), petals (PET), and filament (FIL) are inserted
below the ovary on the receptacle (REC)
Fig 4.7c: Flower anatomy
(C) Cross-section of a Lili (Lilium species) flower. In this view, 6 staments (STA)
containing pollen (POL) are shown. The vascular tissue (VAS) in the filament and 4 lobes
of each anther are evident. Sepals and petals are collectively termed tepals (TEP) for lily
flower. (OVY) ovary
Fig 4.7d: Flower anatomy
(D) Higher magnification of an anther of a lily. The anther wall is composed of the
epidermis (EPI), the endothecium (END), and the tepetum (TAP), which in this case has
degenerated and is only represented by the remnants of the cells. Many pollen grains
are present – some in the binucleate stage (arrows)
Fig 4.8:
Zygotic and somatic embryos
Fig 4.8a:
Zygotic and somatic embryos
(A) Near median longitudinal
section through an immature seed
of the dicot, Cercis canadensis
(redbud). Note the well-developed
pair of cotyledons (CT), shoot
meristem (SM), and hypocotyl (H);
the root meristem (RM) is
inconspicuous, (E) endosperm,
(I) integument and (PC) provascular
tissue
Fig 4.8b:
Zygotic and somatic embryos
(B) Near median longitudinal
section through a seed of the
monocot, Dactylis glomerata
(orchardgrass). The shoot (SM)
and root (RM) meristems, the
single cotyledon (S) scuttelum and
the first leaf (CO) coleoptile are
well developed, (E) endosperm
Fig 4.8c: Zygotic and somatic embryos
Somatic embryos (SE) of redbud (Cercis canadensis) that formed on a
cotyledon (CT) cultured on medium containing 2.4D, (AR) adventitious root
Fig 4.8d: Zygotic and somatic embryos
(D) Section through the cotyledon (CT) and somatic embryos (arrows) shown in fig7.8C.
Note the well-developed suspensions on some of the somatic embryos
