Sensors
UNIT III (Part 1)
CO3: Perform simple process control applications
Definition of Sensor & Transducer
• Sensor is an element that senses the variation in
input energy to produce a variation in another form
of energy
• Transducer uses transduction principle to convert
specified measurand in to useful output
• A Piezo-electric crystal is called a sensor
• If appropriate electrodes and I/O mechanisms are
attached to it,it becomes a transducer
Classification Based on Criteria
• Transduction Principle using Physical or
Chemical Effects
• Primary Input Quantity (Measurand)
• Material & Technology
• Application
• Property
Application Based Classification
Property Based Classification
• Flow
• Level
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Proximity and displacement
• Acceleration
• Image
• Gas and chemical sensors
• Bio sensors
Emerging Sensor Technologies
Static Characteristics
Accuracy: The agreement between the actual value
and the measured value
Resolution: The change in measured variable to
which the sensor will respond
Repeatability: Variation of sensor measurements
when the same quantity is measured several times
Range: Upper and lower limits of the variable that
can be measured
Sensitivity and Linearity
Hysterisis and dead Band
Industrial Sensors
Proximity
– Mechanical
– Optical
– Inductive/Capacitive
Position/Velocity
– Potentiometer
– LVDT
– Encoders
– Tachogenerator
Force/Pressure
Vibration/acceleration
Proximity Sensors
Widely used in general industrial automation
– Conveyor lines (counting,jam detection, etc
– Machine tools (safety interlock, sequencing)
Usually digital (on/off) sensors detecting the presence
or absence of an object
Consist of:
– Sensor head: optical, inductive, capacitive
– Detector circuit
– Amplifier
– Output circuit: TTL, solid state relay
Mechanical Proximity Switches
Essentially a mechanical switch
On/off operation only
Two general modes
– Normally Open (NO)
– Normally Closed (NC)
Come in a wide variety of mechanical forms
For a wide range of uses
Example Mechanical
Proximity Switches
When to Use Mechanical
Proximity Switches
• Where physical contact is possible
• Where definitive position is required
• In operation-critical or safety-critical situations
• Where environment conditions preclude the
use of optical or inductive sensors
Applications and Use of
Mechanical Proximity Switches
• Easy to integrate into machinery of all types
• Requires contact (thus wear)
• Range of voltages: DC 0-1000V, AC, etc.
• Very robust (explosion proof if required)
• Usually used as:
– Limit switch
– Presence/absence indicator
– Door closed/open
Optical Proximity Sensors
• Consist of a light source (LED) and light detector
• (phototransistor)
• Modulation of signal to minimize ambient lighting conditions
• Various models: 12-30V DC, 24-240V AC, power
• Output: TTL 5V, Solid-state relay, etc.
Operational Modes
• Through Beam:
– Long range (20m)
– Alignment is critical !
• Retro-reflective
– Range 1-3m
– Popular and cheap
• Diffuse-reflective
– Range 12-300mm
– Cheap and easy to use
Example Optical Proximity I
Optical Fiber
Delivery System
Example Optical Proximity II
When to use an Optical
Proximity Sensor
• Pros
– Non-contact, no moving parts, small.
– Fast switching, no switch bounce.
– Insensitive to vibration and shock
– Many configurations available
• Cons
– Alignment always required
– Can be blinded by ambient light conditions
• (welding for example)
– Requires clean, dust and water free, environment
Applications of Optical Proximity
Sensors
• Stack height control/box counting
• Fluid level control (filling and clarity)
• Breakage and jam detection
• And many others…
Other Optical Devices
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
• Use sound pulses
• Measures amplitude and
time of flight
• Range provides more
than on/off information
• Frequencies 40KHz-2MHz
When to use Ultrasonic Sensors
• Provide range data directly:
• Level monitoring of solid and liquids
• Approach warning (collisions)
• Can (usually) work in heavy dust and water
• Ambient noise is potentially an issue
Example Applications
Inductive and Capacitive
Proximity Sensors
• Inductive sensors use change in local magnetic
field to detect presence of metal target
• Capacitive Sensors use change in local
capacitance caused by non-metallic objects
• Generally short ranges only
• Regarded as very robust and reliable
Example Inductive Sensors I
Example Inductive Sensors II
Example Capacitive Sensors
Position and Velocity Sensors
• Position and velocity measurement is often required
in feedback loops
• For positioning, and velocity control
• Position measurement:
– Potentiometers
–LVDT
– Encoders
• Velocity Measurement:
• Tachometer
Potentiometers
Types of Potentiometer
• Wirewound
– Wiper slides along coil of Ni-chrome wire
– Wire tends to fail, temperature variations
• Cermet
– Wiper slides on conductive ceramic track
– Better than wire inmost respects
• Plastic film
– High resolution
– Long life and good temperature stability
Linear Potentiometers
When to use a Potentiometer
• Pros
– Require analog signal for control
– Require absolute positional information
– Low cost
• Cons
– Temperature and wear variations
– Not in dusty or wet environments
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• An LVDT consists of a
magnetic core that
moves in a cylinder
• The sleeve of the
cylinder contains a
primary coil that is
driven by an oscillating
voltage
• The sleeve also
contains two secondary
coils that detect this
oscillating voltage with
a magnitude equal to
LVDT Signal Conditioning
• Uses AC
modulation,
demodulation and
phase comparison
• Available in a single
monolithic package
Example LVDTs
Free Core LVDTs
for use in hostile
Environments and
Total emersion
Spring-loaded
Standard for use
In hydraulic cylinders
When to use an LVDT
• High accuracy
• Linear operation (synchro resolver is
equivalent rotary LVDT)
• Harsh environment
• Analog position control
• Embedding (in cylinder for example)
HALL Effect Sensor
Crank shaft position By Hall sensor
Optical Encoders
• Encoders are digital Sensors commonly used to
provide position feedback for actuators
• Consist of a glass or plastic disc that rotates between
a light source (LED) and a pair of photo-detectors
• Disk is encoded with alternate light and dark sectors
so pulses are produced as disk rotates
Encoder Internal Structure
Incremental Encoders
• Pulses from leds are
counted to provide rotary
position
• Two detectors are used
to determine direction
(quadrature)
• Index pulse used to
denote start point
• Otherwise pulses are
not unique
Absolute Encoders
• • Absolute encoders have
a unique code
• that can be detected for
every angular position
• • Often in the form of a
• “grey code”; a binary code
of minimal change
• • Absolute encoders are
much more complex and
expensive than
incremental encoders
Encoder processing
• Need a squaring
circuit to digitise
signal
• A counter and
index monitor
• Generally available
in monolithic form
• Often with
algorithms for
control externally
programmable
When to Use an Encoder
• Require accurate position
information:
– 10,000 line incremental
– 360 line absolute
• Digital feed-back loop
• Compact and reasonably
rugged (not as good as
inductive)
• Linear encoders also available
Tachometers
• Measurement of rotary
speed using a DC generator
• • Essentially a motor running
in reverse
• • Used to be common to
have these attached to
motors to enable direct
analog feedback
• • Much less common now
Tacho generator for large
with digital control (use industrial plant (GE)
incremental encoders)
Temperature Sensors
Force and Pressure
• Force and Pressure generally measured indirectly
through deflection of an alternate surface
• Mechanism include:
– Physical motion and measurement using (eg) an
LVDT
– Strain gauges (metal that changes
resistance when stressed)
– Piezo electric materials that generate a current
when deformed
LVDT Load Cell
Strain Gauge Bridge
Silicon diaphragm Strain gauge Manifold
Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor
Example Load Cells
Subminature Reaction
Load cells Axial load
torque load
cell
cell
Sub-miniature Load cells
All signal conditioning
and amplification
integrated with the sensor
Load cell bridge structure
Piezo Load Cells
• Distortion of crystal,
either quartz or
BaTiO3
• Used for accurate
measurement of small
loads
• Come in the form of:
• single axis load
washers
• or multiple axis load
washers and tables
Pressure
• Pressure measured by:
– Pitot tube and
– Deformation of fixed
membrane
• Deformation measured Miniature
using same methods as
for force:
• Spring (manometer)
• Piezo distortion
High
• Strain gauges Temperature
Industry IP69
Acceleration
• • Acceleration is also
Single Axis,
measured via the 10,000g
force exerted by an
accelerating mass
• • Distortion of a piezo
• • Motion of a
cantilever Shielded for
• • Strain on mass Severe
environment
restraints
• • Accelerometers
mainly used to
measure vibration EMI
shielded
Tri-axial Accelerometers
• Triaxial accelerometers Triple axis
used in mobile systems Accelerometer
• – In high-performance cars For racing
cars
• – Inside rotating elements
of turbines
• – In aircraft elements
• • Provide vibration
information
• • Provide short-term
position data
Silicon Machined Accelerometers
Used in eg air-bags
Cantilever
beams
Silicon Gyroscopes
• • Structural
arrangement of silicon
which records
centrifugal
acceleration and thus
angular speed
• • Use strain-gauge
bridges and/or piezo
structure to record
deformations
• • Multiple component
elements to calibrate
other accelrations
Inertial Systems
• • Many different types of accelerometer and
gyroscope systems
• • Mechanical bodies, fibre optic, etc
• • Together in an orthogonal arrangement of
accelerometers and gyroscopes, these comprise an
inertial measurement unit (IMU)
• • An IMU that is used for navigation is called an
inertial navigation system (INS)
• • These are widely used in aircraft and missile
navigation and guidance
INTRODUCTION TO MEMS
Terminology
• MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems)
• The extension of IC mfg. Technology to the fabrication of planar or 3D
mechanical devices, which may be integrated with VLSI.
• MST (Micro Systems Technology)
• A hybrid of MEMS and other micromachining technology, generally
viewed as synonymous with MEMS, but somewhat broader in scope.
• Nanotechnology
• Nano-machines achieve their functionality through direct control of atoms
and molecules. Self-replication and atomic lattice control are central
concepts in “molecular machining”
• NEMS (NanoElectroMechanical Systems)
• Nanoscale systems fabricated via “top down” nanofabrication methods.
Why MEMS?
• Economic benefits:
- Parallel fabrication for mass production
package-level integration
- system-level integration
- leverages IC fabrication technology
• Technical benefits:
- manufacturing precision light weight and small
size novel capabilities materials advantages
Manufacturing Scales
What are MEMS - Typically?
• Small:
• - electro mechanical
structures consisting of
components measured in
micrometers
- can be easily formed into
highly complex systems
What Can MEMS Do?
Sense and Act on its Environment!!
• - sensing: acceleration, pressure, flow rate, etc...
• - actuating: by electric, magnetic, thermal, … forces
• - fast: 250,000 RPM go far: >1 mm strong: >1 mN
Electrostatic Microactuator
Pressure Sensor
What Else Can MEMS Do?
• ƒ Re-direct and process light
• ƒ Re-direct and process fluids
• ƒ Can be wireless
• ƒ Combined with VLSI, MEMS
• can miniaturize entire systems!
Free-space micro-optical bench Micro-fluidic mixer
(UCLA) BSAC
Markets
• Current sales:
• Pressure sensors, ink jet heads, accelerometers, vibrometers, displays, biochips, optical devices
• Projected markets:
• Automotive: injector/tire pressure and temp, inertial sensors for air bag deployment, active
suspension, navigation
• Optical: switching/routing
• Computer: displays, data storage, printers
• Biochips: blood/infusion pressure, valving, DNA multipliers, bioanalysis
• Smart Structures: imbedded sensors & actuators
• Military: smart munitions, UAVs, S&A
• Industrial: fluid regulation, vibration and strain sensors
Automotive applications...
Aerospace...
• Aircraft, micro-satellites, space exploration …
MEMS Gyroscope
(Fabricated at Standard
MEMS, Inc.)
Industrial...
• Fluid regulation, vibration and strain sensing, environmental monitoring …
Strain/force sensor
(UC Berkeley, Integrated Micro
Instruments
Pressure sensor & Electronics
(Fabricated at Standard MEMS,
Inc.)
Consumer...
• Computers, data storage, ink jet printers,
displays …
Tri-color ink jet print head
(Fabricated at Standard
MEMS, Inc.)
MEMS AFM tip array for
data storage
(Carnegie Mellon
University)
Communications...
• Optical switching and routing, relays, wireless
communication, information systems …
Digital Mirror Device (DMD) Light Micro-Fresnel Lens
Switch (Fabricated at
(Texas Instruments)
Biomedical...
• Biochips, blood pressure sensing, genetic analysis,
proteomics, diagnostics, drug delivery …
Disposable lab on a
chip.)
Microneedles DNA Analysis chip
Smart Sensors
• A sensor producing an electrical output when
combined with the interface electronic circuits
is said to be an intelligent/smart sensor, if the
interfacing circuits can perform
• Ranging
• Calibration
• Decision making for communication.
Smart sensor Block Diagram
Properties of smart sensors
• Automatic ranging and calibration
• Auto acquisition and storage of calibration
constants
• Auto configuration and verification of
hardware
• Auto correction of offsets and temperature
drifts
• Auto linearization of non linear
characteristics.
Properties of smart sensors
• Self tuning control algorithms
• Control program may be locally stored from
a host system
• Control is implementable through serial
bus and host system.
• Condition monitoring.
• Communication through serial bus.
Features of smart sensors
• New sensing methods
• Improved capturing ability
• Digital communication.
• Compensating for sensor non-linearity.
• Permitting programmable gain.
• Changing sampling rate.
• Changing inter aliasing frequency.
Recent Trends in Sensor
Technology
• Conventional sensors are inappropriate for modern
precise works.
• Need of newer version of sensors
• Development of new types such as
• Thick film sensors
• Thin film sensors
• MEMS
• NEMS
Thick film sensors
• Uses thick film deposition technique.
• Processing methods
• Selection and preparation of substrate.
• preparation of initial coating material in paste or pain
form
• Pasting and painting the substrate by coating material
or screen printing it.
• Firing the sample produced in an oxidising atmosphere.
Application of thick film sensors
• For measuring
– Temperature
– Pressure
– Concentration of gases.
– Humidity
– Volume
– Force
Thin film sensors
• Technologies used to prepare thin film sensors
– Thermal Evaporation
• Resistive heating.
• Electron beam heating.
– Sputter deposition
• DC with magnetron.
• RF with magnetron.
– Chemical vapour deposition.
– Plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition.
MicroElectroMechnical
Systems(MEMS)
• Miniature devices on silicon chips.
• Termed as Micro-Engineering/system.
– Micro-Machining and Micro-Mechanics
• Micro system
– Assembly whose overall dimension donot exceed
30mm.
Micro-Machining
• Types
– Bulk Micro-Machining.
– Surface Micro-Machining.
• Bulk Micro-Machining
– Substrate masked by SiO2 and Si3N2 used as etchant.
• Surface Micro-Machining.
– Based on CMOS technology.
– Polysilicon layer is deposited on top of SiO2 and then
etched.
Nano-Sensors
• Enchancement of Micro-Electronics.
• Recent developments in Nano-Technology
– Invention and production of Nano- tubes.
– Integration of Nano particles into gas sensors.
– Fabrication of photonic level band gap structure.
– Single electron memeory
– Logical elements that can operate at room temperature.
– Incorporation of biological motors into Non-biological
environments.
FIBER OPTICS
• The central part of a fiber optic system is a light-transmitting
cable containing at least one but more often a bundle of glass
or plastic fibers. This is terminated at each end by a
transducer. At the input end, the transducer converts the
signal from the electrical form in which most signals originate
into light. At the output end, the transducer converts the
transmitted light back into an electrical form suitable for use
by data recording, manipulation and display systems. These
two transducers are often known as the transmitter and
receiver respectively.
• The basis of operation of fiber optic sensors is the translation of
the physical quantity measured into a change in one or more
parameters of a light beam. The light parameters that can be
modulated are one or more of the following.
• Intensity
• Phase
• Polarization
• Wavelength
• Transmission time
• Fiber optic sensors usually incorporate either glass/plastic cables
or all-plastic cables.
• Fiber optic sensors characteristically enjoy long life. Further
advantages are their simplicity, low cost, small size, high reliability
and capability of working in many kinds of hostile environment.
• Two major classes of fiber optic sensor exist, intrinsic sensors and
extrinsic sensors. In intrinsic sensors, the fiber optic cable itself is
the sensor, whereas in extrinsic sensors, the fiber optic cable is
only used to guide light to/from a conventional sensor.
Sensor Selection Guide
• Any one or several of the following environmental
factors may be important to you in selecting a
sensor:
• Temperature range
• Package size
• Fast thermal response time Fast electrical response
time Heat sinking
• Small thermal mass
• Robustness
• Compatibility with harsh environments
• magnetic fields
• ionizing radiation
• ultra high vacuum (UHV)
• vibration/mechanical shock
• thermal shock
• temperatures above 323 K
• Easily measured signal
• Compatibility with sources of error
• thermal EMFs
• self-heating
• noise pickup
• High sensitivity and High accuracy
• High repeatability – long and short term
• Low power dissipation Interchangeability Ease of use
• Low cost
• Available accessories
• Available instrumentation
Conclusion
• Selecting the right sensor is a critical part of
the design cycle
• Requires an understanding of
– Type of motion
– Precision of motion
– Magnitude of motion
– Operating conditions
END OF SENSOR SLIDES
