Mechatronics –

302050
Lecture Notes / PPT

UNIT I
Syllabus
Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors &
Actuators
Introduction to Mechatronics and its
Applications; Measurement Characteristics:
Static and Dynamic; Sensors: Position
sensors- Potentiometer, LVDT, incremental
Encoder; Proximity sensors-Optical,
Inductive, Capacitive; Temperature sensor-
RTD, Thermocouples; Force / Pressure
Sensors-Strain gauges; Flow sensors-
Electromagnetic; Actuators: Stepper motor,
Servo motor, Solenoids; Selection of Sensor
& Actuator.
 What is Mechatronics
 Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical
engineering (“mecha” for mechanisms), electronic engineering
(“tronics” for electronics), and software engineering.

 The word “mechatronics” was first coined by Mr. Tetsuro

Moria, a senior engineer of a Japanese company, Yaskawa, in
1969.
Mechatronics System
Elements of Mechatronics
 Why Mechatronics ?

Advantages & limitations of mechanical systems

Advantages & limitations of electronic systems

Role of computers
 Measurement Characteristics
Range: Difference between the maximum and minimum value
of the sensed parameter
Resolution: The smallest change the sensor can differentiate

Accuracy: Difference between the measured value and the true

value
Precision: Ability to reproduce the results repeatedly with a
given accuracy
Sensitivity: Ratio of change in output to a unit change of the
input
Zero offset: A nonzero value output for no input
 Measurement Characteristics

Linearity: Percentage of deviation from the best-fit linear

calibration curve
Zero Drift: The departure of output from zero value over a period

of time for no input

Response time: The time lag between the input and output

Operating temperature: The range in which the sensor performs as

specified
Deadband: The range of input for which there is no output
 Range & Resolution
 Range: The range (or span) of a sensor is the difference between the
minimum (or most negative) and maximum inputs that will give a
valid output. Range is typically specified by the manufacturer of the
sensor.
For example, a common type K thermocouple has a range of
800°C (from −50°C to 750°C).
 Resolution: The resolution of a sensor is the smallest increment of
input that can be reliably detected. Resolution is also frequently
known as the least count of the sensor.
The resolution of analog sensors is usually limited only by low-
level electrical noise and is often much better than equivalent
digital sensors.
 Sensitivity
 Sensor sensitivity is defined
as the change in output per
unit change in input.

 The sensitivity of digital

sensors is closely related to
the resolution.
 The sensitivity of an analog
sensor is the slope of the
output versus input line.
 Linear & nonlinear behavior
 Error
 Error is the difference between a measured value and the true input
value.
 Two types of errors:
Bias (or systematic) errors and
Precision (or random) errors.
 Bias errors can be further subdivided into
Calibration errors (a zero or null point error is a common type of
bias error created by a nonzero output value when the input is
zero),
Loading errors (adding the sensor to the measured system changes
the system),
errors due to sensor sensitivity to variables other than the desired
one (e.g., temperature effects on strain gages).
 Repeatability & Reproducibility

 A measurement system must first be accurate, precise &

repeatable before it can be reproducible.

 Repeatability refers to a sensor’s ability to give identical outputs

for the same input

 Precision (or random) errors cause a lack of repeatability

Accuracy, Precision & Repeatability
 Saturation, Dead-Band

Saturation: All real actuators have some maximum output

capability, regardless of the input.
Comparison between Un-saturated & Saturdated Signal
2

1.5

1 Desired Output
0.5
Saturated Output
n
to

0
e
einN
rc w

-0.5
Fo

-1

-1.5

-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time in Seconds

Deadband: The dead band is typically a region of input close to

zero at which the output remains zero. Once the input travels
outside the dead band, then the output varies with input.
Basic Principle of Sensor / Transduction

Measuring Conversion Device Useful Signal

Parameter

Displacement, Voltage, current,

Temperature, capacitance
Pressure etc….
Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon
(temperature, displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional output signal
(electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).

Transducer is a device that converts one form of (energy) signal into another
form of (energy) signal.
 Sensors

 Position Sensors:

Potentiometer

LVDT

Encoders
 Potentiometer
 A rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance device that can
be used to measure angular position
 Through voltage division the change in resistance can be used
to create an output voltage that is directly proportional to the
input displacement.
Potentiometer
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 ‘LVDT’ is a transducer for measuring linear displacement
 It must be excited by an AC signal to induce AC response on
secondary.
 The core position can be determined by measuring secondary
response.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 Encoders

 Digital Optical Encoders

Absolute Digital Optical Encoders

Incremental Digital Optical Encoders

 Digital Optical Encoders

Schematic Diagram

Typical Construction
Simple Rotary Encoder
Quadrature Encoder
Binary Encoder
Grey Code Encoder
Absolute Encoder
Absolute Encoder (Gray Code)
Incremental Encoder
 Proximity sensors

 Proximity sensors:

Optical

Inductive

Capacitive
Proximity sensors
Application of Proximity sensors
 Inductive Proximity sensors
• Detects metal object
• Uses an electro-magnetic field to detect a conductive target
• Sensing coil in the end of the sensor probe
• When excited creates an alternating magnetic field which induces small
amounts of eddy current in the target object
• Eddy currents create an opposing magnetic field which resists the field
being generated by the sensor probe coil.
• The interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance
between the sensor probe and the target.
• Comparatively inexpensive but conducting targets sensing
Inductive Proximity sensors
 Capacitive Proximity sensors
 The sensing surface of the sensor’s probe is the electrified plate.
 The sensor electronics continually changes the voltage on the probe
surface
 The amount of current required change this voltage is measured
which indicates the amount of capacitance distance between the
probe and target.
 Can be used for nonmetallic materials such as paper, glass, liquids,
and cloth
Capacitive Proximity sensors
• Motion Sensors:

• Variable Reluctance

• Temperature Sensor:

• RTD

• Thermocouples
 Variable Reluctance sensor
 A magnet in the sensor creates a
magnetic field

 As a ferrous object moves by the

sensor, the resulting change in the
magnetic flux induces an emf in
the pickup coil
 Variable Reluctance sensor

 Used to measure speed and/or position of a moving metallic

object

 Sense the change of magnetic reluctance (analogous to

electrical resistance) near the sensing element

 Require conditioning circuitry to yield a useful signal (e.g.

LM1815 from National Semi.)
 Temperature measurement

• EMF based

• Thermocouple

• Resistance based

• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

 Thermocouples

 If two different metals ‘A’ and ‘B’ are connected as in Figure,

with a junction and a voltmeter, then if the junction is heated the
meter should show a voltage.

 This is known as the Seebeck effect.

 Construction of Thermocouples
 At the tip of a grounded junction probe, the thermocouple wires are
physically attached to the inside of the probe wall. This results in good
heat transfer from the outside, through the probe wall to the thermocouple
junction.
 In an ungrounded probe, the thermocouple junction is detached from the
probe wall. Response time is slower than the grounded style, but the
ungrounded offers electrical isolation.
 The thermocouple in the exposed junction style protrudes out of the tip of
the sheath and is exposed to the surrounding environment. This type offers
the best response time, but is limited in use to dry, non-corrosive and non-
pressurized applications.
 Types of thermocouples
Sr. Type Thermocouple Material Sensitivit Useful
No y in temperature
(µV/oC) range
1 T Copper-Constantan 20 – 60 -180 to +400
2 J Iron-Constantan 45 – 55 -180 to +850
3 K Chromel-Alumel 40 – 55 -200 to +1300
4 E Chromel-Constantan 55 – 80 -180 to +850
5 S Platinum-Platinum/10% Rhodium 5 – 12 0 to +1400
6 R Platinum-Platinum/13% Rhodium 5 – 12 0 to +1600
7 B Platinum/ 30% Rhodium-Platinum/6% Rhodium 5 – 12 +100 to +1800
8 W5 Tungsten/5% Rhenium-Tungsten/20% Rhenium 5 – 12 0 to +3000

Constantan = copper/nickel; Chromel = nickel/chromium; Alumenl = nickel/aluminium

 Selection of Thermocouples

The following criteria are used in selecting a thermocouple:

Temperature range

Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material

Abrasion and vibration resistance

Installation requirements (may need to be compatible with

existing equipment; existing holes may determine probe

diameter)
 Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD)
Uses the phenomenon that the resistance of a metal changes with
temperature.
Are linear over a wide range and most stable.
Advantages of platinum as
RTD
The temperature-resistance characteristics
of pure platinum are stable over a wide
range of temperatures.
It has high resistance to chemical attack
and contamination
It forms the most easily reproducible type
of temperature transducer with a high
degree of accuracy .
It can have accuracy ± 0.01 oC up to 500
oC and ± 0.1 oC up to 1200 oC.
Limitations of RTD
These are resistive devices, and
accordingly they function by passing a
current through a sensor.
Even though only a very small current is
generally employed, it creates a certain
amount of heat and thus can throw off the
temperature reading.
This self heating in resistive sensors can be
significant when dealing with a still fluid
(i.e., one that is neither flowing nor
agitated), because there is less carry-off of
the heat generated.
This problem does not arise with
Comparison: Thermocouple vs RTD
 Force/Pressure Sensor
 Stress measurement using strain
 Strain is change in length (dl) per unit length (l)
 Strain gauge is primary sensing element used in pressure,
force and position sensors

l dl
 Strain Gauge

 Based on the variation of resistance of a conductor

or semiconductor when subjected to a mechanical
stress.
 The electric resistance of a wire having length l,
cross section A, and resistivity ρ is:
l
R
A
 When the wire is stressed longitudinally, R
undergoes a change.
 Passing small amount of current through such wire
will, thus, help measure voltage change.
 The sensing element of the strain gage is made of
copper-nickel alloy foil. The alloy foil has a rate of
resistance change proportional to strain with a
certain constant.
Strain Gauge
 Strain Gauge Type

Types:
 Semiconductor Strain Gauge

 Thin Film Strain Gauge

 Diffused Semiconductor Strain

Gauge
 Bonded Resistance Gauge

Selection Criterion
 Operating Temperature, Nature

of Strain, Stability Requirement

 Strain Gauge

 To measure the strain requires accurate measurement of very

small changes in resistance.

 For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a strain of

500 x10-6.

 A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 will exhibit a change

in electrical resistance of only 2x(500 x 10-6).

 For a 120 Ω gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 Ω.

 Strain Gauge Circuit

 The Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit for detection of minute resistance

changes. It is therefore used to measure resistance changes of a strain gauge.

 Strain gauge is connected in place of R4 in the circuit. When the gauge bears strain

and initiates a resistance change, ΔR, the bridge outputs a corresponding voltage.
• With no force applied to the test specimen, both strain gauges have
equal resistance and the bridge circuit is balanced.

• However, when a downward force is applied to the free end of the

specimen, it will bend downward, stretching gauge #1 and
compressing gauge #2
 Strain Gauge Circuit

Voutput 1
Quarter Bridge :   GF  
Vinput 4
Voutput 1
Half Bridge :   GF  
Vinput 2
Voutput
Full Bridge :  GF  
Vinput
In above eqns :
R
R l
GF  
 l
 Effect of Temperature on Output of Gauge

Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to change

only in response to applied strain.

However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material to

which the gauge is applied, will also respond to changes in
temperature.

Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to

temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate for
the thermal expansion of the specimen material; compensated
gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not totally remove it.
 Temperature compensation
• By using two gauges

• One gauge is active, and a second gauge is

placed transverse to the applied strain.

• The strain has little effect on the second

gauge, called the dummy gauge.

• Because the temperature changes are

identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their
resistance does not change, the voltage does
not change, and the effects of the
temperature change are minimized.
 Electromagnetic Flow sensor
Magnetic flow meters operate based upon Faraday's Law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that a voltage will be
induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic field.

Faraday's Law: E=kBDV

The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly proportional to

the velocity of the conductor V, conductor width D, and the
strength of the magnetic field B.

Magnetic field coils are placed on opposite sides a pipe to generate

a magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic Flow sensor
 As the liquid moves through the
field with average velocity V,
electrodes sense the induced
voltage.

 An insulating liner prevents the

signal from shorting to the pipe
wall.

 The output voltage E is directly

proportional to liquid velocity,
resulting in the linear output of a
magnetic flow meter.
 Stepper Motor
 Discrete Positioning device
 Moves one step at a time for each input
 Appropriate excitation in winding/s, makes the rotor attract
towards the stator
 Stepper Motor

63
 Servo Motor

 Electric (DC/AC) motor driven using Pulse Width

Modulation (PWM)
 Servo Motor

 Servo mechanism consists of position sensor (potentiometer/encoder),

gear mechanism and intelligent circuitry
 Solenoid
 Electromagnetic actuator
 Consist of a movable ferrite core that is activated by current flow
 When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is established that
provides the force to push or pull the core
 Provide large force over a short duration