Part 2: Op-Amps

Essential & Practical

Circuit Analysis

By Solid State Workshop

 Dependent Sources
• A dependent source is a voltage or current
source that has a value which is controlled
by a voltage or current somewhere else in
the circuit.
• Its value is the product of a constant μ and
a voltage Vx or current Ix .

• The multiplier μ is the source’s gain.

• Gain is defined as the ratio of output to

input voltage (or current).
Vout Iout
gain (μ) = V or I
in in
Dependent Sources
Voltage Voltage
Controlled Controlled
Voltage Current
Source Source

Current Current
Controlled Controlled
Voltage Current
Source Source
 Dependent Sources
• In reality, two terminal
dependent sources do not
exist.

• There’s no way to
telepathically sense a
voltage or current
somewhere else in a
circuit.

• A “real” dependent source

is electrically coupled to
the surrounding circuit.
 Dependent Sources
• Find the value of Vo .

15V
Ix = = 0.15A
100Ω

200Ix = 30V

10K
Vo = 30V
50K + 10K

1
Vo = 30V = 5V
6
 What is an Op-Amp?
• An op-amp is a real world part that shares
some key similarities with the fictitious
dependent source we just looked at. +
• An op-amp is an integrated circuit, or chip,
that consisting of ~20 transistors,~10 resistors,
−
and ~1 capacitor.

• Op-amps behave in an almost perfectly linear

fashion, but are ironically made up of
imperfect and non-linear components. Genius!

• Op-amps come in thousands of varieties, each

with different performance/cost tradeoffs. PDIP-8 SOIC-8
 What is an Op-Amp?
• In engineering speak, an op-amp
is a differential amplifier with a
single-ended output.

• That just means that its output is

equal to the difference of its two
inputs multiplied by a gain
constant.

• In this configuration, the amount

of amplification is determined Output Function:
entirely by the op-amp’s internal
open-loop gain Av . Y = Av × X1 − X2
 What is an Op-Amp?
• An op-amp is a 5-pin device.

• Two input pins

 “Non-inverting” V+
 “Inverting” V-

• One output pin Vo

• Two power supply pins

 Positive +Vcc
 Negative –Vcc

• Note: There is no ground pin!

 Op-Amp Transfer Characteristics

• In the linear region…

Vo = AV (V+ – V−)

• In the saturation regions…

Vo = −Vcc or +Vcc
 Taming the Gain
• Op-amps have huge values of Av , their open-
loop gains. (Between 105 and 108 typically)

• A differential input voltage of just 50mV would

send the output on its way to 5kV or more!
Note: It would hit the upper power supply
limit long before it got anywhere near 5kV.

• We need to “tame” the op-amp so that the

output isn’t so sensitive.

• That is, we need to reduce the effective gain.

 We need feedback!
• It is impossible to reduce the open-loop gain of an op-
amp because it is internal to the op-amp.

• However, we can employ an external mechanism that

keeps the difference between the inputs so small that the
output stays within a practical range.

For ex. If V+ − V− = 25μV and AV = 100,000

Then, Vo = 2.5V 

• This mechanism is called negative feedback, in which

portion of the output signal is fed back to the input.

• β is the feedback factor which determines how much of

the output is fed back to the input. (0 < β ≤ 1)
 How Does Feedback Work?
• This op-amp system is governed
by two simultaneous equations:
1. Vo = AV ∙ VΔ

V− = β ∙ Vo
V𝜟 = V + − β ∙ Vo
V + − VΔ
2. Vo =
β

• Let’s solve it graphically 

 Real Op-Amps vs. Ideal Op-Amps
• A real op-amp circuit (with feedback) works by maintaining a tiny voltage VΔ
between its inputs to counteract the op-amps huge internal gain AV.

• The op-amp regulates its own VΔ by adjusting its output voltage Vo which is
connected back to one of the inputs through a feedback network defined by β.

• We noticed that as AV was increased, the input differential voltage VΔ moved

closer to zero and the output voltage closer to the “target”.

• That is, the op-amp approached ideal operation.

• Classic op-amp circuit analysis always assumes ideal operation in favor of

simplicity. However, today’s free SPICE software can paint a more accurate
picture of how an op-amp circuit works by accounting for real characteristics.
 Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics
• An ideal op-amp has:

 Infinite open-loop gain

Av = ∞

 Infinite input resistance

Ri = ∞

 Zero output resistance

Ro = 0
 Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

 Infinite open-loop gain

Av = ∞

• We are interested in amplification, so

we want to operate in the linear
region.

• However, if AV is infinite, then the

only way to stay in the linear region is
if (V+ − V-) is equal to 0.

• That is, V+ must be equal to V-. Vo = AV (V+ – V−)

 Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

 Infinite input resistance

Ri = ∞

• An amplifier should be “invisible” to

whatever sources are connected to
its inputs.

• An ideal op-amp has infinite input

resistance so no current flows into
the op-amp’s inputs.

• Thus, I+ and I- must both be 0.

 The Golden Rules
• Based on what we just learned, let’s
formally state the two “Golden Rules” of
op-amps.

 I. The output attempts to do whatever

is necessary to make the voltage
difference between the inputs zero.

 II. The inputs draw no current.

• With these two rules, we are now ready to

solve any ideal op-amp circuit.

Credit: “The Art of Electronics” (3rd) by Horowitz and Hill

 Non-Inverting Amplifier
Vo
• What is the closed-loop gain, ?
Vs

• Since V+ = Vs , the op-amp must

“do whatever it takes” to make
V- = V+ = Vs .

• Now, notice that V- is the output

voltage of a voltage divider
consisting of RF and RG.
β
• Remember that a voltage divider
produces a voltage which is a
fraction (β) of its input voltage.
 Non-Inverting Amplifier
• The only way the output of the
divider V− can equal Vs is if the
input to the divider Vo is a
voltage larger than Vs.
• That’s amplification!

V− = V+ = Vs β
RG
V− = Vs = Vo ×
RG + RF β

Vo = RG + RF Vo = 1 + RF
Vs RG Vs RG
 Buffer (Voltage-Follower)
• The buffer is really just a non-
inverting amplifier without a
feedback resistor network.

• In order to keep V− = V+ , the op-

amp must produce a voltage Vo
which is exactly equal to Vs .

• That is, its gain, Vo , is 1.

Vs
• So, what’s the point?
 Buffer (Voltage-Follower)
• In the classic voltage divider circuit,
attaching a load RL across the output
changes the voltage at the output
because the load draws current from
the divider. R1

• Can you think of a circuit which does VS

not alter the output voltage of the
divider and can drive the load RL?
R2 RL
• Hint: The input resistance of a buffer is
practically infinite and its output
resistance is ideally zero. 
 Buffer (Voltage-Follower)
• The Golden Rules tell us that the
inputs draw no current.

• Thus, the output voltage of the

divider will not change when an
op-amp buffer is attached.

• Basically, the op-amp observes its

input voltage and replicates that
voltage on its output.

• The voltage divider circuit and

the load are effectively isolated.
Hence, the name “buffer” is used.
 Inverting Amplifier
Vo
• What is the closed-loop gain, ?
Vs
IF
• If V− = V+ , then V− = 0 because 1
V+ is attached directly to ground.
Ii Iin
• Recall that the inputs do not draw
any current.

• Performing the KCL at 1

Ii + IF − Iin = 0

Vs Vo Vo R
+ =0 =− F
Ri RF Vs Ri
 Summing Amplifier
• At heart, the summing amplifier is I1
just an inverting amplifier
configured to produce the sum of its I2
IF

input voltages.
Iin
I3
I1 + I2 + I3 + IF − Iin = 0

V1 V2 V3 Vo
+ + =−
R1 R2 R3 RF

RF RF RF
Vo = − V1 − V2 − V3
R1 R2 R3
RF
• If all input resistances are equal, then: Vo = − V1 + V2 + V3 … Vn
Ri
 Difference Amplifier
• Sometimes we may want the
difference between two signals.
R2 I1 IF
V+ = V− = V2
R1 + R2

I1 + IF = 0

V1 − V− Vo − V−
=−
R1 R2
Vo 1 1 V1
= V− + −
R2 R1 R2 R1

R1 + R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2 R2
Vo = V− − V1 Vo = V2 − V1
R1 R1 R1 + R2 R1 R1

R2 R2 R2
Vo = V2 − V1 Vo = V − V1
R1 R1 R1 2
Integration

Volume filled (cm3)

dV
Flow Rate =
dt

Turn-on Turn-off Time

Bucket Capacitor
Flow rate Current
Volume filled Voltage
Size of bucket Capacitance
 Integrator
IC
• Now let’s apply the water/bucket F
analogy to this circuit.

• If we “force” a constant current IC

F
through capacitor CF then a voltage
will be produced across it that
increases at a constant rate. Think
constant flow rate causing the
bucket to fill at a set rate.

• In fact, the capacitor is charged at

a rate of:
dVo IC dVo
= F IC = CF
dt CF F dt
 Integrator
• Now that we’ve defined IC let’s
F
perform the nodal analysis.
Is + IC = 0 IC
F Is F

Vs dV
= −CF o
Ri dt

dVo 1
=− V
dt Ri CF s
1
Vo = − න Vs dt + C
Ri CF
 The Digital-to-Analog Converter
• Ever wondered how your digital computer or phone plays back analog audio?

• They all use DACs! A digital audio file consists of a sequence of samples, each of which
represent one sliver of the total sound clip.

• When played back, or reconstructed, at just the right speed, you hear your favorite song!

f916
sound_clip.wav Hex
f16 = 1510 916 = 910
ChunkDesc 52 49 46 46 24 08 00 00 57 41 56 45 1510 = 11112 910 = 10012
FormatDesc
66 6d 74 20 10 00 00 00 01 00 02 00 f916 = 111110012
22 56 00 00 88 58 01 00 04 00 10 00
f916 = 24910
Sampled 64 61 74 61 00 08 00 00 00 00 00 00
24 17 1e f3 3c 13 3c 14 16 f9 18 f9 • An 8-bit number can store integer
Data values between 0 and 255.
34 e7 23 a6 3c f2 24 f2 11 ce 1a 0d
 The Digital-to-Analog Converter
• If Vref = 1.28V, what is Vo for the given input bit string?
 The Digital-to-Analog Converter
• If Vref = 1.28V, what is Vo for the given input bit string?
b3 b2 b1 b0

Ri Ri Ri Ri
Vo = −Vref b + b + b + b
Ri 3 2Ri 2 4Ri 1 8Ri 0

1 1 1
Vo = −Vref 1b3 + b2 + b1 + b0
2 4 8

1 1
Vo = −1.28 1 1 + 0 + 1 + 0
2 4

Vo = −1.28 × 1.25 = −1.6V

• This DAC can produce 16 discrete values between 0V and −2.4V at 0.16V intervals.
 A History Lesson
• One of the initial applications of the operational amplifier
was in analog computing.

• Huh? Analog computing? Yes! Op-amps, as we’ve learned,

can be configured to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and
even integrate. These circuit blocks can be connected
together to solve complex mathematical problems.

• For example, during WWII, calculating the trajectory of a

missile was accomplished with huge, slow, and unreliable
mechanical analog computers.
The K2-W wasn’t the first op-
• The op-amp allowed for a faster, cheaper, smaller, and amp, but it was probably the
most popular vacuum tube op-
more reliable replacement to these clunking behemoths. amp ever produced.
Modeling a Real World System

1
y′′ (t) = (x(t) − By′ (t) − Ky(t))
M
Thanks for watching!
I’d love to hear your feedback!

Subscribe