5.

THERMOFORMING

CORPORATE TRAINING AND

PLANNING
 INTRODUCTION

• It is the combination of two words Thermo &

Forming.

• The plastic sheet retains the moulds shape and details.

• The process involves heating a thermoplastic sheet

to its softening temp (pliable State).

• Processing or forcing the hot & flexible sheet against the

contours of mould by applying vacuum or air pressure.

•The sheet is held there for cooling and then removed.

•Thermoforming is secondary processing technique.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND

PLANNING 2
• The sheet is heated to the point only enough to
soften it.

• Cooling step is usually short due to low wall

thickness of the part as compared to other parts.

• The essential characteristics of thermoplastic

sheet material should be such that when they
are heated to just below melting point they
should become rubbery or plastic in nature to an
extent which enables them to be stretched out
rather like a balloon.

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CORPORATE TRAINING AND 4
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 APPLICATION

• Refrigerator door liners

• Cheese containers
• Soft drink cups
• Signs
• Packaging of Tablets and capsules

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 5

PLANNING
• Ice cream cups
• Plastic tray
• Helmets
• Telecommunication Joints
• Luggage
• Light and instrument panels.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 6

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CORPORATE TRAINING AND 10
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 ADVANTAGES

• Tooling cost is inexpensive.

• Suitable for large parts
• Thin walled components can be made by this
method only.
• Suitable for small number of parts, samples,
prototypes etc.
• Low capital cost.
• Moulds can readily modified and quickly
changed.

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PLANNING
 LIMITATION

• The process is confined to the use of sheet

material only.

• All the parts to be made by this process must

have uniform well thickness.

• Ribs or mounting bosses cannot be made.

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PLANNING
 MATERIALS CHARACTERISTIC
FOR THERMOFORMING

1. Ability of the materials to be deep drawn without

tearing.
2. Plastic Memory.
3. Good hot melt strength.
4. Hot Elongation.
5. Forming temperature range
a. Wide range is preferred
b. No sharp melting point should be there.

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PLANNING
 TYPES OF MATERIAL USED

 Basically thermoplastic materials used for

thermoforming process.

 Such types of material when heated will exhibit a

reduction in their modulus of elasticity, their stiffness
and load bearing capacity.

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PLANNING
 A wide softening range, i.e a broad temperature span in
which plastic is soft, pliable and elastic is desirable
since, during thermoforming process the temperature of
material drops rapidly.

 High molecular weight thermoplastics mostly preferred

for thermoforming.

 The material to be thermoformed should have higher

thermal expansion.

 The thermal stability of the material must be good.

Thermal diffusivity is ideal for establishing cooling time
for thermoformed parts.
CORPORATE TRAINING AND 15
PLANNING
Thermal Diffusivity = Thermal Conductivity
Density X specific heat

 The water absorption capacity of the plastic material

should be low for thermoforming, because slow rate
of water absorption also causes difficulties in
thermoforming

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PLANNING
PLASTIC MATERIALS FOR FORMING

PS, ABS, PVC, PMMA,

CAB, PC, HDPE, PP

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 MATERIAL PREPARATION

 Most available sheet materials are prepared by sheet

extrusion process which employs medium to high
molecular weight polymers that are subjected to
minimal heat stress.

 Sheets with excellent optical properties are obtained

either by casting or by laminating and / or press
polishing of otherwise manufactured sheets.

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PLANNING
 SHEET FOR THERMOFORMING

The sheets are manufactured from :

• Extrusion Process
• Calendaring Process
• Casting Process
The sheet thickness ranges from 0.25mm to 12.5mm

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PLANNING
 THERMO FORMING MOULD

Mould Materials
(i) Plaster of Paris :
 Most commercial moulding, plasters are not strong
enough to be used in prototyping.

 Plasters are inorganic calcious materials that

hydrolytically react and harden when mixed with water.

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PLANNING
 Soaps such as Murphy’s Oil soap, found in lather goods
stores can also be used as a surface release agent.
Vents should be designed in by placing release-agent-
coated wires perpendicular to the pattern surfaces
before coating.

 A very hard surface (Void-free) can be achieved by

“Splitting” a thin layer of relatively high water content
plaster slurry against the pattern.

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PLANNING
Advantages :
Cheap, quick, and intimate production of details is
possible.

Disadvantage :
A maximum of only about 50 forming is possible, the
surface being very soft and the mould itself is very
fragile.

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PLANNING
(ii) Wood :

 Hardwoods are used for prototype and short

production.

 The woods must be thoroughly Klin-dried before

shaping to minimize stress relief during fabrication.

 After thorough drying, the surface can be sealed with

temperature–resistant enamel or varnish.

 Recently, epoxy enamels and varnishes have been

developed that protect wood surface for hundreds
of cycles with out refinishing.
CORPORATE TRAINING AND
PLANNING 23
Advantages :

Cheap, longer life span than plaster moulds, higher

impact strength.

Disadvantages :

Limited life say for approximately 500 forming. During

repeated forming, wooden mould should not be allowed
to become too hot and its dimensions should be checked
regularly.

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PLANNING
(iii) Plastic moulds:

 In particular, plastic tooling is economically preferred

for thick sheet forming.

 Plastic moulds are used where mould surface

temperature do not exceed 60oC. where drape or
vacuum forming used, epoxy and unsaturated
polyester resin (UPE) together with glass fiber are the
mould materials of choice.

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Advantages:
1. Fairly cheap, easily manufactured, low thermal
conductivity, little or no finish is required, lasts long.

Disadvantages:
1. Some materials are sensitive to high forming temp.
2. mould surface must be adequately cleaned, waxed
and buffed prior to use.

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PLANNING
iv) Aluminium moulds:

 Aluminium is frequently the material of choice for

thermo forming moulds.

 Because it can be easily fabricated and it has very

high thermal conductivity and so sensible heat
from plastic material can easily be removed.

 It is light weight, tough metal.

 Thermo forming tools can be made from either

machined plate or caste material.
CORPORATE TRAINING AND
PLANNING
27
 The Aluminium mould mostly consists of 1 to 2 % Cu.,
0.5 to 1% mg, 0.5% Mn, 4 to 8% Si, 1% (max) Fe, 15 Ni and
traces of Ti and Zn.

 Typical machined aluminium hardness is 130 Brinell and

Aluminium has relatively high thermal expansion co-
efficient.

Advantage:

Dimensionally stable, good surface finish, very good

abrasion resistance and indefinite life time.
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PLANNING
 HEATING SYSTEMS

(i) Convection Ovens:

 Convection ovens are originally the most common

device used to heat plastic sheets for
thermoforming.

 The heat can be supplied by gas flames or by

electric resistance units.

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PLANNING
 Forced circulation of air and baffling to equalize the
air flow at around 200 feet per minute are crucial to
obtain temperature uniformity.

 Good thermal insulation of the oven walls and the

strategical position and size of entrance and exit
doors increase energy efficiency.

 Automatic temperature regulators must be provided

to keep air temperature fluctuation as low as
possible.

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PLANNING
(ii) Infrared Radiant Heaters

 Besides dialectic heating, oil submersion heating and

contact heating, IR radiant heating is the fastest way of
heating plastic sheet or films to thermoforming
temperature.

 Although heater densities may vary with equipment,

there are also differences in regard to materials.

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PLANNING
 High temperature plastics, such as polycarbonates
and polyesters are the highest, with about 30 watt/sq.

 The cellulosic, styrene and vinyl Polymers are the

lowest 15 watts/sq. Thin films can be heated at higher
energy densities in a considerably short time.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 32

PLANNING
(iii) Electrically Powered Infrared Heaters

 Electrically powered infrared heaters are available in

a wide range of designs. In order of decreasing
radiant surface temperatures (i.e. increasing wave
length of energy emitter).

They are:
 Tungsten wire filament heaters in quartz tubes and
tungsten wire filament glass lamps.

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PLANNING
 Nichrome wire coil heaters in quartz glass tubes.

 Nichrome wire or band in refractory materials

embedded or surrounded and protected by
stainless steel round.

 Heat distribution over entire sheet is more uniform

in case of radiant heaters than hot air convection
ovens.

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PLANNING
 STRETCH RATIO

A sheet of plastic initially of thickness to and surface area

Ao is stretched to provide a part having a surface area A (A
> Ao) and an average thickness ta (ta < to)
The plastic volume given by :V = toAo = tdA = taA
The stretch ratio is given by :

Ra = A/Ao or Area ratio Other wise called areal draw ratio

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PLANNING
 DIFFERENT FORMING PROCESSES

• Straight Vacuum Forming Process.

• Pressure forming
• Plug-Assist Forming
• Free forming
• Drape forming
• Snap-back forming
• Matched-die forming
• Mechanical forming

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PLANNING
 STRAIGHT VACUUM FORMING

• This techniques is most versatile and widely

used.

• The plastic sheet is clamped in a frame and

heated.

• The hot sheet becomes rubbery or elastic.

• Then it is placed over a female mould cavity.

• The vacuum is now applied.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 37
PLANNING
• The atmospheric pressure forces the hot sheet
against the walls and contours of the mould.

• It is allowed to cool there.

• The formed part is removed and final finishing and

decoration is done.

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PLANNING
• This technique is used when the outside of the part (the
side against the mould) must have fine details or close
tolerances .

• This process is limited to draw ratio of 1 ½ .

• Draw ratio is the ratio of the draw dept to the part width.

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 FIGURE

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 40

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 PRESSURE FORMING

• It is similar to straight vacuum forming process.

• Here also plastic is formed in a female mould.

• Here instead of applying vacuum a positive air

pressure on the top of the plastic is used to force
the material against the female mould.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 41

PLANNING
 PROCESS

• The sheet is clamped and heated till softened.

• The softened sheet is transferred to the
moulding area and a seal is made so that the upper
chamber, above the plastic is airtight.
• The sheet is also sealed against the mould as is
done with vacuum farming.
• Air pressure is applied into the area above the
softened plastic and vacuum is created below
it.
• The air pressure and the vacuum forces the plastic
against the mould.

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CORPORATE TRAINING AND 43
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 ADVANTAGES

• Moulding cycle is faster.

• The sheet can be formed at lower temp because

the forming pressure is higher.

• A greater dimensional control and part definition

can be achieved.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 44

PLANNING
 PLUG ASSIST FORMING

• A male plug is used.

• Plastic sheet is clamped in the female mould and

after the heat-softened sheet is sealed across the
mould cavity,the plug pushes the sheet to stretch
it.

• After completion of penetration stroke vacuum and

/or compressed air is introduced to transfer the
sheet from the plug surface to the cavity mould
surface.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 45

PLANNING
• Plugs are made up of metal,wood or thermoset
plastic.

• Plug is heated to a few degree less than the temp

of the plastic in order to prevent premature
cooling.

• The plug size combined with the rate and depth of

penetration affect the amount of stretching that
occurs.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 46

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CORPORATE TRAINING AND 47
PLANNING
 ADVANTAGES

• Deeper and more uniform wall thickness is

obtained.

• It is also responsible for the ultimate material

distribution in the finished product.

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PLANNING
 FREE FORMING

• The sheet is expanded with pressure.

• The size of bubble is monitored by an electronic

eye.

• When the bubble reaches the desired size,the air

pressure is reduced to a level that maintains the
size of the bubble while the part cools.

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PLANNING
 ADVANTAGES

• The products have very high optical clarity.

• No mould is used.

• No transfer or handling of the sheet.

• Simple and Economical

• Uniform cooling.

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 DISADVANTAGES

• Complexity of shapes can’t be made.

• The control over the shape is

difficult.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 51

PLANNING
 DRAPE FORMING

• The plastic sheet is clamped and heated.

• Then drawn over the mould either by pulling it over

the mould or by forcing the mould into the sheet.

• The seal is created.

• Vacuum is applied beneath the mould and forces the

sheet over the male mould.

• By draping the sheet over the mould, that part of the

sheet which is touching the mould remains close to
the original thickness of the sheet. Side walls are
formed from the material draped between the top
edges of the mould and bottom seal area at the base.
CORPORATE TRAINING AND
PLANNING 52
CORPORATE TRAINING AND 53
PLANNING
 ADVANTAGES

• Greater depths of draw can be achieved without

excessive thinning compared to forming in a
female mould.

• Uniformity of thickness is much better.

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PLANNING
 SNAP-BACK FORMING

• It is the modified form of Drape forming.

• The sheet is heated to the sag point.

• Then it is drawn slightly into a vacuum box below

the part.

• This pre-stretching creates thinning effect at the

center of the part . It is generally to 1/2 to 2/3 of
total draw.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 55

PLANNING
• A second step is then activated to give more draw
i.e the male mould is pressed against the material
to draw it further.

• During this stage, the thickness of the material is

constant at center and thinning occurs near the
edge.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 56

PLANNING
• Finally the part is formed by applying a vacuum
through the male mould and causing the part to
snap back against the outside of mould.

• The part cools against the mould to take its final

shape.

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CORPORATE TRAINING AND 58
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Advantages :

• Uniform wall thickness

• Complex shape can be formed.

Disadvantages :
• Longer cycle time.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 59

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 APPLICATIONS

• Many cases & luggage sheets.

• Computer Housing.

• Acrylic cast sheets etc.

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 MATCHED DIE FORMING

• This method resembles to that of compression

moulding.

• The plastic sheet is heated to the sag point.

• It is trapped and formed between male and female

dies.

• The clearance between the male and female dies

decide the wall thickness.

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PLANNING
• Vent holes on both mould is provided to avoid the
entrapment of air.

• Moulds are placed until the plastic cools and

cures.

• No vacuum air pressure is applied in this

process.

• Mould materials are generally wood,plaster,

epoxy or others.

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CORPORATE TRAINING AND 63
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 ADVANTAGES

• Very good reproduction of mould details.

• Very good dimensional accuracy.

• Lettering and grained structure can be easily formed.

DISADVANTAGE

• Internal cooling of mould is desirable.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 64

PLANNING
 MECHANICAL FORMING

• The sheet is clamped and heated.

• Mechanical pressing is done against the inside of

a forming tool such as bracket to give the desired
shape.

• The plastic sheet cut to appropriate shape and

size and then heated to the sag point.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 65

PLANNING
• The pressing can be done by a roller, a block or
any other instrument to apply a relatively uniform
pressure on the plastic sheet, when it is still hot
to create the desired shape.

• The formed plastic sheet is cooled in that place.

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PLANNING
 INLINE THERMOFORMING PROCESS

 Inline thermoforming mainly meant for the

continuous sheet forming & production.

 If the forming process can be accomplished during

the time it takes to extrude the sheet and if long
production runs are involved, inline extruder
thermoformer could be considered.

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PLANNING
 ADVANTAGES

 The advantages is that the materials is already

available in very uniform temperature and it might not
have to be preheated.

 Any cut-outs, margins and trim materials can

continually be regrinded and re-extruded, thus
solving the problem of eliminating scrap material.

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PLANNING
 Since the virgin regrind ratio remains constant for
each product, the disturbances found when
external regrinds are reprocessed are avoided.

 Improved extruder technology and the increased

use of gear pumps, which eliminate extrusion
surging helps too.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 69

PLANNING
 DISADVANTAGES

The problem arising at any point may require the

shut down of the whole production line and that no
pre-printing of the sheet is possible.

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 CO-EXTRUSION AND LAMINATES

 Co-extruded and laminated sheets have gained

favour for thermoforming process since for many
applications.

 By the term co-extrusion is meant the formation of

sheet produced by simultaneously employing two or
more extruders.

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PLANNING
 The term laminate should always be employed
when either two or more previously extruded or
calendered sheets combined or bonded.

 Usually laminates are obtained by pressing several

layers between Chrome Plated Steel Sheets.

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PLANNING
 Co-extruded products and laminates are used when :

1. Parts are required which have different colours on the

inner and outer surface, and plain coat of paint is not
adequate.

2. Parts are subjected to ultra violet radiation on the

outside, but lower cost material suffices to provide
mechanical strength.

3. low cost grind or scrap materials ( of undesirable

colour) are available but parts with high quality
appearance are demanded.
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PLANNING
 Thermoforming Injection moulding
Thermoforming requires Injection moulding uses
more expensive sheet as material in granule form
raw stock which is cheapest form of
raw material
Thermoforming dies are Here the mould cost is
made up of wood, plaster very high.
of Paris, aluminium and
its cost is substantially
low.
If the number of articles to Injection moulding is
be moulded is less then suitable for large
the choice would be production.
thermo forming. CORPORATE TRAINING AND 74
PLANNING
Thermoforming operation Injection moulding
sets up quickly. operation takes more time.
Thermoforming sheet can In Injection Moulding
be printed or decorated decoration is not possible
before forming before processing.
Holes and undercuts Holes and undercuts be
cannot be produced by produced by injection
thermoforming moulding.
Thermoforming is Injection moulding
adaptable to the produces not as large part
production of very large as thermoforming.
parts such as trailers roof.

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PLANNING
Thermoforming parts Injection moulded in parts
require final trimming don’t require any final
operation trimming operation.
Pressure required is lower Pressure requirement is
than injection moulding very high.
Here scrap Production is Scrap production is very
very high low.
Lower machine original Higher original machine
cost cost.

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PLANNING
THERMOFORMED PRODUCTS
AND
ITS APPLICATION

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(i) Packaging and  Blister packs.
related items  Bubble packs.
 Cosmetics, Cases, Packages,
 Meat, Poultry trays
 Wide mouth jars.
 Vending machine hot cup.
 Egg Cartoons.
(ii) Vehicular  Automotive door inner liners.
 Windshields.
 Motorcycle windshields, Mud
guards.
 Recreational vehicle interior
components.
 Window Blisters.
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PLANNING
(iii) Industrial  Pallets
 Part Trays, Transport trays
 Equipment Cases.

(iv) Building  Shutters, Windows.

Products  Skylights, Translucent Domes.
 Exterior lighting shrouds.
 Storage modules, Bath-Tubs.

(v) Others  Exterior Signs, Luggage trays.

 Boat Hulls (with PUR foam)
 Advertising signs.
 Lighted indoor signs.
CORPORATE TRAINING AND
PLANNING
79
FAULTS, CAUSES & REMEDIES
IN
THERMOFORMING PROCESS

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PLANNING
PROBLEM PROBABLE REMEDIAL ACTION
CAUSE
(a) Heating too  Lower heater temperature
rapidly  Use slower Heating
 Increase distance between
heaters and sheet. Blow air
across sheet surface during
BLISTERS Heating.
(b) Excess  Predry sheet
Moisture  Pre heat sheet
 Heat from both the side.
(c) Uneven  Check heat out put power
Heating consumption.
 Use pattern heating.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND

PLANNING 81
 (a) Sheet too  Heat sheet longer.
Cold  Raise heater temperatures.
INCOMPLETE  Use more heaters.
FORMING  Change to more efficient
heater design.
(b) Insufficient  Check vacuum holes for
Vacuum obstruction.
 Increase number of vacuum
holes.
 Increase diameter of vacuum
holes.

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PLANNING
(c) Vacuum not applied  Use vacuum slots rather than
rapidly enough. holes.
 Too many bends in vacuum
line.
 Check vacuum leaks.
(d) Applied pressure too  Increase air pressure.
low.  Use plug, silicone slab rubber,
or Bladder as plug assist.

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PLANNING
  Shorten heat cycle.
 Use slower, soaking Heat.
SCORCHED (a) Sheet  Consider convection
SHEET surface too hot. heating.

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PLANNING
 Length heating cycle.
(a) Insufficient Raise heater temperature.
Heating Change to more efficient
COLOUR heaters.
INTENSITY
CHANGE Reduce heater temperature.
(b) Excess Shorter heating cycle.
Heating If localised, check heater
efficiency.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 85

PLANNING
(c) mould too Cold Warm the mould

(d) Sheet cools before fully  Transfer sheet faster.

formed.  Increase forming rate.
 Increase mould, plug
temperature.
(e) Poor mould design  Reduce draw ratio.
 Increase draft angle.
 Increase corner radius.

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PLANNING
 (a) Stretching Increase sheet temperature.
below forming Increase forming speed.
temperature.

(b) Sheet Dry-  Poor extrusion.

WHITENING coloured  Material unsuitable for
pigmentation.
 Local blemished removed
with hot air gun.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 87

PLANNING
 (a) Poor Vacuum Increase vacuum hole area.
Check plugged vacuum holes.
(b) mould Too Hot Reduce mould temperature.

SURFACE (c) mould Too Cold Increase mould temp.

BLEMISHES (d) Rough mould Polish mould.
surface Use Aluminium
moulds
(e) Scratched sheet Inspect handling
procedures.
Use Polish Sheet

CORPORATE TRAINING AND

PLANNING 88
  Check heater temperature.

 Pattern Heat.
SHINY (a) Local overheating
STREAKS  Air cool locally.

 Reduce Heating Cycle.

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PLANNING
 (a) Uneven part  Change coolant channel
cooling configuration.
(b) Poor material  Use Pre-stretching or plug
distribution in assist.
part wall.  Poor temperature uniformity.
WARPED
PARTS (c) Poor mould Design  Increase vacuum hole area.
 Redesign rim area to stiffen.
 Add plugged vacuum holes.
(d) mould temperature  Increase mould temperature
too low to just below material set
temperature.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND

PLANNING
90
 (a) Inadequate Vacuum leak
Vacuum Plugged vacuum holes.
Vacuum hole are inadequate.
(b) Surface too  Roughen mould surface.
smooth  Change to lower conductivity
mould material
SHRINK
MARK (c) Part shrinking Increase forming pressure.
during forming Increase mould temperature.
Change to less elastic material.
(d) Inadequate air  Increase air flow rate.
pressure  Increase air pressure.
 Increase cycle time under
pressure.

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PLANNING
 (a) Part temperature too Increase cooling time
high Lower mould temperature.
Reduce heating time

PARTS (b) Inadequate Draft Rework mould for more draft.

STICK Use female mould.
IN mould Remove part early.

(c) mould undercuts  Remove part early

 Consider more sophisticated
ejection system.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 92

PLANNING
(d) Sticking in one spot  Uneven mould temperature.

 Uneven sheet temperature prior to

forming.

 Vacuum brake inadequate.

(e) Wooden mould Lubricate with dry mould release.

(f) Rough mould Polish especially corners.

surface
Use dry mould release.

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PLANNING
 (a) mould Design Increase corner Radius.

(b) Sheet is too hot  Decrease sheet temperature.

 Preheat sheet, then bring for
SHEET forming.
TEARS  Sheet thickness may not be
WHILE uniform.
FORMING (c) Sheet too cold Increase heating time.
Preheat sheet.

(d) Improper  Depth of draw excessive for

material material.
 Change forming technique.

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PLANNING
 Increase radii.

Corner too cold during forming.

CORNER (a) Stress Increase mould temperature.

CRACKING Concentration
IN SERVICE Increase sheet temp.

Increase forming rate.

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 95

PLANNING
 a) Sheet too hot (a) Reduce Heater temp.
(b) Reduce Heating Cycle
b) Melt index too high (a) Use lower MI Olefin.
Excessive (b) Change Resins.
Sag (c) Increase sheet orientation.
(c) Sheet area excessive (a) Pattern Heat to reduce
temperature of sheet centre.
(b) Add sag bands.

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PLANNING
 (a) Incorrect forming Try Plug assist
technique
VERY THIN
CORNERS (b) Sheet too thin Increase sheet thickness

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PLANNING
(c) Sheet temperature variation Check Material allocation.

Pattern heating

Increased rate of forming

(d) Variation in mould Change coolant line
temperature configuration.

Check free surface cooling.

(e) Incorrect material Use stiffer resin

Use more elastic resin

CORPORATE TRAINING AND 98

PLANNING