Robot and
Sensors
INTRODUCTION
❖ Origin of the word robot in 1923 — Translation of Czech play R. U. R. (Rossum’s Universal
Robot, 1921) by Karel Capek (Capek, 1917).
❖ From Czech word ‘robota’ meaning slave labour!
❖ Designed to replace human beings, and depicted as very efficient and lacking emotion –
Even now this description is prevalent!
❖ Asimov (Asimov, 1970) in Roundabout coins robotics in his three laws of robotics — Robots
are portrayed as harmless and in control of humans!
❖ First industrial robot patent in 1954 by George C. Devol (US Patent No. 2,988,237) for
Universal Automation or Unimation.
❖ First robot by Unimation, Inc. (Founded by J. Engelberger and George C. Devol) called
Unimate – Used by General Motors at Trenton, New Jersey automobile plant for die-cast
handling and spot welding.
DEFINITION
● The Robotic Industries Association (1969) defines robot as
“A re-programmable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of
a variety of tasks”.
● Robot – An electro-mechanical machine with sensors, electronics and are guided by
means of computers.
The study of Robots is called robotics.
Components of Robot
Basic components of Robot
● Manipulator
● Power Supply
● Control System
These components may be assembled in one integral unit or separated
into individual components connected by pneumatic,hydraulic or
electrical source
Manipulator
● The manipulator is an assembly of axes
capable of motion in various directions.
● The “wrist " located at the end of the
robot arm has from one to three degrees
of freedom, depending on the model or
make.
● There is no standard terminology in the
industry as yet, but these degrees of
freedom may be pitch, yaw, and roll axes.
Roll,Pitch and Yaw
● The manipulator is powered by hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders
or hydraulic motors to power the various axes of motion.
● Also attached to the manipulator are feedback devices that
sense, measure the position and velocity of various axes of
motion and send this information to the control systems for use
in coordinating the robot motions.
Power Supply
● The power supply is the source of energy used to move and regulate the robot's drive mechanisms.
● The energy comes from three sources
Electric
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
● Electric drives are clean and quiet with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
● They also offer a wide range of payload capacity, accompanied by an equally wide range of costs.
● Hydraulic drives, today's most popular, have high payload capacities and are relatively easy to maintain.
● They are however, rather expensive and not as accurate as either the electric or pneumatic drives.
● Pneumatic drives, although limited to smaller payloads, are relatively inexpensive. fast and reliable.
Robot Control system (RCS)
● The Robot Control system is termed as the brains of the
robot.
● It sequences and coordinates the motion of the various
axes of the robot and provides interlocking
communication with external devices and machines.
● Controls may range from simple stepping-drum types of
sequences to micro-computer-based types for the most
sophisticated robots complete with various memory
devices.
● Programmes may be written in AML(A Manufacturing
Language), which is a high-level language developed
specifically for industrial robot applications.
● The operator interacts with the RCS through a standard
video terminal.
● The terminal is used to create and edit programmes, enter
robot commands execute programmes, and generate data
points during the robot training phase.
Vision Sensing:
Adaptive control for robots may be defined as the modification in it's behavior such
that it will adjust to the changes in it's working environment.
The main advantage of adaptive control lies in its Flexibility, the ability to change the
control programme easily to a new function or adjust to new parts as the need arises.
The two components that provide the Adaptive control are
1.Robot Control Unit(RCU)
2.Sensor Control Unit (SCU)
The Robot controlled unit was already discussed…
2.Sensor Control Unit(SCU):
The SCU provides visual information about the scene to be analyzed. It takes the
information that each camera sees,analysis the image and transposes that information
to the robot's coordinate system.
An image of an object comes through the camera lens and falls on an image plane
inside the camera.
The most useful camera for machine vision is the solid-state matrix array camera,
which was designed for military space use.
This camera consists of grid light-sensitive elements called picture elements or
pixels.
The information from this grid is acquired by rapidly scanning the entire field,
line by line. The varying light intensities associated with each pixel are then
translated into varying voltage levels and transmit to the interface electronics.
The 3D coordinate information is analyzed by the SCU and sent it to
the RCU so that action can be taken by the control unit and deliver it
to the manipulator.
Adaptive control for a robot, with intelligence to adapt to its
environment, eliminates the need for accurate fixturing of work
pieces, precise fabrication tolerances of equipment and accurate
teaching of the coordinate data
Tactile Sensing
A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical
interaction with its environment.
A common application of tactile sensors is in touchscreen devices on mobile
phones and computing.
Robots designed to interact with objects requiring handling involving precision,
interaction with unusual objects, need sensory apparatus which is functionally
equivalent to a human's tactile ability.
Tactile sensors have been developed for use with robots. Tactile sensors can
complement visual systems by providing added information when the robot
begins to grip an object
Applications of Robots
Robots in
Automotive
Industry
Fire
Fighting Robot
Classification of Robots
Robots are classified based on work envelope:
● Rectangular Coordinate (Cartesian) Robot
● Cylindrical Coordinate Robot
● Spherical Coordinate Robot
● Jointed Spherical Robot
● SCARA
Robot Functional Classification:
● Non servo point to point and
● Servo Controlled (point to point and continuous-path).
1.Rectangular Coordinate (Cartesian) Robot
1.Rectangular Coordinate (Cartesian) Robot
Robots with Rectangular Arm Geometry use cartesian coordinates and move linearly
along each of the X,Y & Z axes. This type of movement is also called as 3P Geometry.
Where, P-Prismatic or linear motion
This type of geometry is most commonly used with Pick and Place for a large overhead
mounted robots.
Rectangular arm geometry robots can only move linearly in each direction.
Ex:An Overhead crane robot is the best example for this type of motion.
It can move forward and backward, Left and Right, Up and Down directions and are
generally used in Material handling systems.
Rectangular Envelope
Robotic arms that use cartesian coordinates
geometry generate a rectangular work
envelope
Cylindrical Coordinate Robot
This type of robots move linearly in
two directions (X&Y) and rotory
motion in third direction.
As the arm of the robot moves in two
prismatic directions and one rotory
direction, it is designated as
R2P.
Where R-Rotational motion
Applications-Material Handling
Robotic arms with cylindrical geometry move linearly in two directions.
Stroke:Vertical Linear Motion is called stroke.
Reach: Horizontal Linear motion is called Reach.
Swing : Rotational Motion is called swing.
Cylindrical Work Envelope
Cylindrical Geometry Robot has a cylindrical
work Envelope
Advantages:
● High Repeatability
● Smaller usage of floor space
● Larger Payload capacity due to
structural rigidity
3.Spherical Coordinate Robot
Spherical arm geometry robots rotate in
two directions and move linearly in one
direction and thus given the designation
2RP
Which means
2R-2 Rotations
P-1 Prismatic
The robot has base rotation, shoulder
rotations and Prismatic or Linear motion at
the arm.
Applications:
Welding
Material handling
Painting
Loading and assembly tasks
Work envelope:
It is almost conical and is not become
Sphere until the arm extends
4.Jointed Spherical Robot
5.SCARA
The SCARA acronym stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm or
Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm.
The first SCARA robot was created as a revolutionary prototype in 1978, in the
laboratory of Professor Hiroshi Makino, at Yamanashi University in Japan.
No. of axis: 4-axis
It has 3 Rotory motions and 1 Prismatic motion.
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Robot Functional Classification:
1. Non servo point to point and
2. Servo Controlled (point to point and continuous-path).
1.Non Servo Point-to-Point.
The non servo point-to-point robot is also known as a "pick and place" robot.
The motion actuators are pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or motors connected to
directional control valves.
● Flow-control valves control the speed of action of the motion.
● Limit switches act as sensors at the end of each axis of motion.
These robots typically cost from Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 30.000 and can handle
parts weighing up to 1,000 kg.
2.Servo-Controlled Robots.
Servo-controlled robots are not dependent on end stops but are capable of stopping at
an infinite number of points along each axis of motion.
Feedback devices such as encoders, resolvers, potentiometers, and tachometers are
mounted on each axis of the robot motion.
They constantly monitor the position and velocity of each axis to provide a feedback
signal to the robot control system.
Servo-controlled robots are of two types:
1.Point to Point Robot
2.Continuous path robot.
1.Point to Point Robot:
Point-to-point robots are programmed in the robot's memory to move to discrete points.
Teaching of programmes is done by a hand-held teach pendant, which contains buttons
for each axis of motion.
When an axis button is pressed, the axis moves until the button is released, and a record
button is pressed putting that point in the robot's memory.
In this way the programmer walks the robot then repeats the robot in the automatic
mode.
Base costs run from Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 150,000, with payloads ranging from
1 to 20000kg.
2.Continuous Path robot:
Continuous-path robots utilise the same type of feedback as the point-to-point
robots but store on a time basis.
The operator teaches the programmes by physically grasping the end of the robots
arm leading it through the sequence of motions, which the control system is
continuously sampling and recording feedback data from the position sensors.
These data are then stored on a mass memory storage system
as a cassette ( Continuous-path robots are used for paint spraying and welding.
Types of Sensors used in Robots
1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. Vision Sensor
4. Tactile sensor
5. Accelerometer
6. Pressure Sensor
7. Light Sensor
8. Ultrasonic Sensor
9. Touch Sensor
10. Color Sensor
11. Humidity Sensor
12. Tilt Sensor
CNC Machine Tools
Machine control by Numerical instructions
All the operations in the conventional machines are done
manually i.e. providing the speed, feed, depth of cut,
adjusting the axis of spindle w.r.t. the position of component
in machine vice, loading and unloading of components etc.
To avoid all these, NC machines are evolved which can
operates by means of a program punched on the paper tape
and that can be read by Tape reader system and send that
information to the MCU to do various operations.
By the continuous usage of punched paper tape, it will wear
and its life keep on decreasing which is one of the
disadvantage of NC machine.
To overcome this,
CNC machines are Evolved which can runs by means of a
program written in G-codes and M-codes, stored in the
memory and can be used,edited no. of times to do the
operations.
NC Machine
If Each and every axis of a machine tool is controlled by using
numbers, alphabets, symbols etc, it is called as a Numerical Controlled
Machine. (NC Machine).
Parts/Components of NC Machine:
1. MCU or CPU
2. Drive Unit (stepper motor)
3. Feedback Devices
4. Tape Reader system
5. Very Few Manual Controls
1.MCU:(Memory Controlled Unit)
MCU is working as a brain of human being i.e. MCU is taking input information
from the input devices, analyze the data, and all these decisions will be
implemented by using output devices available in the CNC machine.
The Input Information is in the form of the decimal system and as the machine
can understand only the Binary System of information, a device is required in
MCU to convert the decimal to binary and vice versa and that device are called
as Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU).
2.Drive Unit:
It is the device used for converting Electrical energy into
Mechanical energy which is required for traveling the axis.
Ex: Stepper motor is used as drive unit in NC Machines
3.Feedback Devices:
It is a Displacement Measuring Equipment used to measure the actual distance
traveled by the Axis and giving it as a feedback to the MCU and the MCU will
compare the distance traveled by the axis with the distance to be traveled and
determines the difference in distance.
The MCU will calculate the no.of pulses and send it to the drive unit. This
process continues in the form of a cycle.
Feedback Device→MCU→Drive Unit.
4.Tape Reader system:
The instructions for doing operation was punched on the paper tape.
For reading the instruction given in the punched paper tape, tape reader system will be used.
Light is provided on one side of the tape and light receiving sensors are placed on the other side.
When the tape is moving and stopping at some location where the holes are present, the light is
passing and is incident on light receiving sensors.
Whatever the sensors which are receiving the light, they will be generating the electrical pulse or
electrical energy and is to be sent to MCU so that it can drive any motor to do the operation.
5.Very Few Manual Controls:
Even though, the above parts are present in the NC machine, still the
manual interventions are required for switching ON and OFF, loading and
unloading of the workpiece etc called as manual controls.
These are the NC Machine Parts which are explained in a detailed manner.
Advantages of NC machine tools:
1. Reduced lead time:
Lead time includes the time needed for planning, design and manufacture of jigs, etc.Since the need for special jigs and fixtures
is often entirely eliminated, the whole time needed for their design and manufacture is saved.
2. Elimination of operator errors:
The machine is controlled by instructions registered on the tape provided the tape is correct so that machine and tool operate
correctly and no errors will occur in the job.
Fatigue, inattention by operator will not affect the quality or duration of the machining
3. Operator activity:
The operator activity is to print the instructions w.r.t. Components to be produced on the paper tape and is to be installed into
the NC machine to do various operations.
4. Lower labor cost
Printing the paper tape with holes w.r.t. Instructions, loading & Unloading of parts,ON & OFF the machine are the work done by
the operator and every thing can be done by NC machine and this reduces the labour problem and the cost for the labour.
5. Longer tool life Tools
can be used at optimum speeds and feeds because these functions are controlled by the program.
6. Flexibility in changes of component design
The modification of component design can be readily accommodated by reprogramming and altering the tape.
Savings are affected in time and cost.
7. Reduced inspection.
The time spent on inspection and in waiting for inspection to begin is greatly reduced. Normally it is necessary to
inspect the first component only once the tape is proved; the repetitive accuracy of the machine maintains a
consistent product.
8. Reduced scrap
Operator error is eliminated and a proven tape results in accurate component.
9. Accurate costing and scheduling The time taken in machining is predictable, consistent and results in a
greater accuracy in estimating and more consistency in costing
CNC Machine
If Each and every axis of a machine tool is controlled by using a mini
computer[which can run by means of Coding(G-Codes & M-Codes)] called as
Computer Numerical Controlled Machine(CNC).
Parts/Components of CNC Machine:
1. MCU or CPU
2. Drive Unit (servo motor)
3. Feedback Devices
4. Mini computer
5. Very Few Manual Controls
1.MCU:(Memory Controlled Unit)
MCU is working as a brain of human being i.e. MCU is taking input information
from the input devices, analyze the data, and all these decisions will be
implemented by using output devices available in the CNC machine.
The Input Information is in the form of the decimal system and as the machine
can understand only the Binary System of information, a device is required in
MCU to convert the decimal to binary and vice versa and that device are called
as Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU).
2.Drive Unit:
It is the device used for converting Electrical energy into Mechanical energy which is
required for traveling the axis.Ex: Servomotor is used as drive unit in CNC Machines
Servomotor:
It is also working similar to that of stepper motor but additionally, there is a quick action
Braking System available in the motor so that whenever the power supply is getting
stopped, the Braking System will be activated and stops all the moving parts.
Hence it is possible to get the high positional accuracy of the machine. Because the Servo
Motors are not available at the time of development of the NC machine, the stepper motor
can be used as a drive unit.
3.Feedback Devices:
It is a Displacement Measuring Equipment used to measure the actual distance
traveled by the Axis and giving it as a feedback to the MCU and the MCU will
compare the distance traveled by the axis with the distance to be traveled and
determines the difference in distance.
The MCU will calculate the no.of pulses and send it to the drive unit. This
process continues in the form of a cycle.
Feedback Device→MCU→Drive Unit.
4.Mini Computer:
Due to the usage of the minicomputer, the program will be fed into the machine
through a keyboard and kept in the memory of a mini-computer in the form of a
software program.
Due to the above program, the operation will perform without the intervention
of the operator and the dimensional accuracy is also high.
5.Very Few Manual Controls:
Even though, the above parts are present in the NC machine, still the
manual interventions are required for switching ON and OFF, loading and
unloading of the workpiece etc called as manual controls.
These are the CNC Machine Parts which are explained in a detailed manner.
Advantages of CNC Machines:
● Due to Servo Motors as drive units, the positional accuracy of the component produced is
better.
● Feeding the program into the machine through the keyboard is very easier.
● Duplication of software program will be easier i.e.the software program can be copied into the
floppy or Disks and can Copy into any number of Machines.
● Because of the software program, the life of a program is infinity.
● Design modifications can be easily incorporated into the existing program.
● Because of very few manual controls, complete automation of the CNC machine is possible.
CAD:
Design of components(in 2D or 3D sketches) using computer is called Computer Aided
Design.
CAM:
Computer-aided design (CAD) is widely used, and in many instances this information
stored in a computer can be processed to directly control machine tools. This activity is
called computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
CIM:
When designing, machining, and assembly operations are linked to the management
functions of manufacturing, the process is termed as computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM).
Machining Center
A Machining Center refers to an NC machine which can do various jobs, such as milling, punching, boring, screwing, and etc., without
changing the setting of the part. Furthermore, it has a device which can bring in many types of different tools to the working position
automatically, or it has a quick tool changing function with the structure which can process at least 2 sides . Thus, an NC machine is a
machine which can perform various process by changing tools automatically.
The types of machining center are categorized into horizontal type and vertical type by the direction of the main axis
(spindle). The spindle is installed horizontally for horizontal type and vertically for vertical type.
NC device ------- Calculates NC data which is
read and gives commands to the machine.
- Tool magazine ------- Stores tools used.
- Middle arm ------ Takes out a tool from the
magazine.
- ATC arm ------- Changes tools
- Spindle ------- Axis attached tools and rotates
tools.
- Pallet ------- A tray where material is placed
and fixed.
- Table ------- Moves pallets
- Cutting oil tank ------- A tank which keeps
cutting oil.
CNC Drilling Operation
● Drilling is a common CNC machining operation.
● Spindle speed, feed rate and hole depth are
controlled by CNC instructions.
● A peck drilling cycle is used for small hole or deep
hole drilling. In a pecking cycle, the drill feeds a
short distance into the workpiece and is then
withdrawn rapidly to clear chips from the hole.
● The drill then returns rapidly to the point from
which it was withdrawn. Then the drill again
advances another short distance at the preset feed
rate before the next cycle begins.
● Pecking cycles can be programmed as a given
number of pecks per hole or as a distance drilled
between cycles.
CNC BORING
In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled by
means of a single-point cutting tool such as gun barrel or an engine cylinder. Boring is used
to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole.
A CNC machine shown below is performing close tolerance boring. The boring tool can be
withdrawn rapidly from the hole during rough boring operations where tool marks are-not
critical. For close tolerance bores, withdrawing the tool at the same feed rate that was used
for boring into the workpiece leaves an excellent surface finish. Accurate bores require the
use of boring tools preset for roughing, semi finishing, and finishing cuts.
CNC Milling:
● Milling is a cutting process that uses a milling cutter to remove the material from the surface of
workpiece by advancing at an angle in a direction.
● It is a frequently performed machining operation for milling a cavity or Pocket Milling.
● Spindle speeds, Milling feed rates, direction and distance of the cuts are controlled from the
MCU(Machine Control Unit).
● Many CNC controllers have a canned cycle function for pocket milling.
CNC milling machines are controlled in one of two ways: by computer or via manual override. Computer
programming allows the machine to make the precise cuts required but the manual override allows a CNC
machine operator to slow down or speed up or tweak the process if necessary.
CNC Turning:
Turning is a process of removing the material from its circumference.Turning is a slightly different
process compared to CNC milling. CNC turning relies upon computer-controlled machines, but creates a
different end product. The process uses a single-point cutting tool that is inserted parallel to the material
that will be cut.
CNC turning can be used on the outside of material to create a tubular shape, such as a decorative brass
shoulder bolt or nautical drive shaft, or it can be used on the inside of material to create a tubular cavity
within the chosen material.
CNC Tapping
Tapping operations are well suited for CNC machines. One such method is lead screw tapping. The lead screw causes the
machine spindle to feed the same distance per revolution as the lead of the tap. The lead Screws are changed to correspond
to the different tap leads. Tapping heads can also be used in these lead of the tap provides the feed.
On CNC controls, the lead of the tap is calculated and then programmed as a feed per revolution of the
machine spindle. A control unit with a tapping canned cycle will reverse the spindle rotation when the correct
tapping depth is reached and will unscrew the tap from the hole.
CNC CONTOURING
Probably the greatest machining capability of the CNC machine tool is contouring or
continuous path machining. This includes circular, angular, and irregular shape cuts in
two or three dimensions. Figure is an example of a four axis machine milling a cam; the
fourth axis is the rotary table. The CNC machine tool can produce shapes that would be
impossible with conventional machines.
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control is (continual and automatic) which
provides monitoring and constant compensation
adjustment without the need of any interversion by an
operator.
The advantage of adaptive control lies in its ability to
adjust the feed rate depending upon cutting tool
conditions, hardness of the workpiece, varying depth of
cut, deep holes with chips closing the flutes of the drill
etc.
Closed loop control system is utilized by the adaptive
control system, i.e. the machine is made to automatically
adopt the required cutting conditions presented to the
tool through the feedback systems as depicted in Fig.
The cutting tool speed and feed are firmly programmed
in open loop system of NC.
NC and CNC turning centers
A sophisticated CNC lathe or turning center uses one or more numerically controlled turret
tool holder.
With the workpiece held in a chuck, a variety of cutting tools can be used for inside and
outside turning.
The machine is able to drill, bore, tap, thread, and machine internal and external contours
and shapes in one setup.
A four-axis turning machine can make parts that used to require multiple machine setups.
One of the two turrets shown in has live tooling, that is, rotating tools. With live tooling,
milling a hexagon on a part previously turned is simple.
Cross drilling a hole, tapping or other milling machine functions can be performed on such a
machine.
When an electronic sensing probe is part of the available machine options, workpiece
dimensions can be measured while the part is still in the machine. This guarantees precision
and extreme accuracy of the machined parts.
CNC turning machines have a feature that allows the programming of a constant surface speed. This feature
gives an excellent surface finish in facing cuts or in the machining of tapers. A constant surface speed also
helps in obtaining maximum cutting tool life.
All safety rules that apply to conventional machine tools also apply to CNC machines. The operator is
advised while working on CNC machine or work parts wear appropriate eye protection. He is also advised to
avoid wearing rings, bracelets, watches, any type of necklace and loose clothing at the time of working on
CNC machine or work parts.
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